Spanish Cuisine in the 16th Century
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia (copyright Micaela Burnham 2011)
The food of 16th century Spain reflects its many influences; medieval European, Mediterranean ingredients, and the influence of the Moors, who ruled parts of Southern Spain until the late 15th century. By the late 16th century, we find ingredients of the New World, especially chilis. All of the extant cookbooks from Spain were written in Catalonia, an area on the Mediterranean coast. Its major city is Barcelona, directly on the coast. The area known as Aragon abuts Catalnoia to the west, and from the 12th century to the mid 15th century, the Kingdom of Aragon-Catalnia ruled a large amount of territory that also included Valencia, Naples (which included most of southern Italy in this period), and the islands of Sardinia and Sicily. In effect, the rulers of this Kingdom ruled most of the Western Mediterranean. During this same period, the Moors held lands in Southern Spain until they were driven out by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella in the late 15th century. Many recipes in the 16th century cookbooks contain recipes that claim to derive from French, Venetian, Genovese, Parman, and Lombardy sources, making the Spanish cuisine truly international in scope.
The earliest known European cookbook, An Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook of the 13th Century was almost certainly a translation of a Spanish Muslim cookbook. The next cookbook Is The Book of Sent Sovi, probably written in the early 14th century. The extant copy is late 15th century, and the book was still being widely circulated in the 16th century. In the 16th century we have the Libro de Guisades (the book of food) written in 1529 by Master Ruperto de Nola, and based on his earlier works Libro de Cozina (the book of cooking) written in 1525 and Art de Coch (the art of cooking) written in 1520. All of these books reflect the unique food culture of Spain. Seafood is by far the most common protein mentioned is these books, which is not surprising considering that Spain is a peninsula and that Catalonia is directly on the Mediterranean coast. Keep in mind that cookbooks of this time were not like those of today. They were memory aids for professional cooks, not intended to give detailed descriptions of cooking processes or even of all the ingredients.
Many sea creatures and fish are specifically named in the cookbooks. Second in importance was pork, used both as a meat, and also for the cooking fats of lard, bacon, and “pot grease”. The eating of pork became a test of one’s religious beliefs, and failure to eat it could get you locked up by the Inquisition. Chicken and other types of fowl were also mentioned with frequency. Peacock sauce is the first recipe in Sent Sovi. Mutton and lamb, goat, rabbit, hare, and beef were also mentioned.
Many types of legumes and grain were available, but the chickpea, so common in middle-eastern cuisine, was the most popular legume. Rice, a luxury item in much of Europe, was more common in Spain, as the climate allowed it to be grown there. The type of rice was more like the Arborio rice we know today; short plump grains that become soft and creamy when cooked. Almond trees also grow well in parts of Spain, and almond milk, that prized liquid of European cooking, was used extensively in Spanish dishes. Hazelnuts, pine nuts, and walnuts are also mentioned.
Citrus fruits were also cultivated in Spain. The bitter orange, Neroli, was used as a scent in the middle-ages and Renaissance, but sweet oranges were introduced to Spain in the 15th century from China via Portuguese traders. The Valencia orange, still popular today, was prolifically grown in that province. In the early 16th century sweet oranges were a great luxury reserved for the very rich, but by the end of that century, oranges were sold in English theatres for a few pennies. Lemons were also grown in Spain, and lemon juice was used frequently. Often it would be used as a sour agent where vinegar would be used elsewhere in Europe.
Pomegranates were grown and extensively used in Spanish cooking, again reflecting the influences of the Middle-East. References to pomegranate, bitter pomegranate, and bittersweet pomegranate appear extensively in the cookbooks. The differences probably reflect ripe, unripe, and partially ripe fruit. Verjuice, a souring agent used frequently in European cuisine was generally made from the juice of sour grapes or crab apples elsewhere. In Spain verjuice was made from, “lemons, oranges, bitter pomegranate or good [wine] vinegar.”
Herbs and spices were used extensively. Again, Spain benefitted from the Portuguese traders who sailed the world for exotic spices. Saffron, that most expensive of all spices, was grown in Spain, and was a feature of Spanish cooking, as it still is today. “Almori” a spice mixture derived from Middle-Eastern roots was a combination of bread crumbs, salt, cinnamon, and other spices such as pennyroyal, fennel, fenugreek, anise, thyme, coriander, cilantro, caraway or nigella. The Spanish word “salsa” means spices, and in period it referred to spice mixtures. Parsley, marjoram, and mint were the “Holy Trinity” of herbs, so often were they used in foods. Rosewater and rose vinegar, again reflecting the influence of the Moors, were common ingredients.
Of the many vegetable available and used, eggplant was clearly popular. Also mentioned are carrots, Mushrooms and truffles, gourds, squash, turnips, the alliums, onions, leeks, and garlic, and various greens—beet, chard, spinach, and arugula.
Sugar was much more accessible in the 16th century than it had been previously, and this is reflected in the sweets made in the 16th century. Honey was also used also, as were the wealth of fruits available. Candied nuts, sweet fritters, and nougat candies of ground nuts were some of the sweet treats available.
Cooking methods were typical of the period throughout Europe and the Middle-East; roasting in coals, spit roasting, boiling, frying, grilling, and baking in ovens and Dutch ovens. The use of casserole dishes played an important part in Spanish cooking. A heavy dish with a tight fitting lid, the casserole could be used in baking or could be buried in coals. It could also be used as a stew pot. Stews and casserole type dishes were some of the most popular.
Bibliography
The Book of Sent Sovi, Medieval Recipes from catalonia, Robin Vogelzang, trans., Joan Santanach, ed., 2008, ISBN 978-1-85566-164-6
“Pomegranates, Peacocks, and Pork: A 16th Century Spanish Cookbook,” a Pennsic class taught by Mistress Brighid ni Chiarain, OL (Robin Carroll-Mann)
An Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook of the 13th Century, Charles Perry, trans., http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Medieval/Cookbooks/Andalusian/andalusian7.htm#Heading347
Book of Cooking, Ruperto de Nola, 1525, Robin Carroll-Mann, trans., http://www.florilegium.org/files/FOOD-MANUSCRIPTS/Guisados1-art.text
A Drizzle of Honey, David M. Gitlitz and Kay Davidson, 1999, ISBN 0-312-19860-4
Recipes
Pottage of Noodles, adapted from Book of Cooking by Micaela Burnham, serves 4-6
It appears that the noodles are intended to soak up all of the broth while cooking, so be prepared to add more as the dish cooks.
1 lb fettuccini noodles, fresh or dried
2 quarts chicken broth
Salt to taste
1 cup grated Manchego cheese
Boil 1 quart of the broth with salt. When it boils, add the noodles and cook, stirring occasionally, until the noodles are soft (not al dente—they should be soft to the tooth). You may need to add broth as it is absorbed by the noodles. The amount will differ depending on the type of noodle. Remove the pot from the heat, cover and let stand for 5 minutes or so. Place noodles in a serving bowl with a bit of any broth that is left. Add the grated cheese and toss to distribute.
Egglant Casserole, adapted from Book of Cooking by Micaela Burnham, serves about 6
4 medium eggplants, peeled and cut into quarters
2 onions. Peeled and roughly chopped
2-3 quarts mutton broth (chicken or beef may be substituted)
1 cup grated Manchego cheese (the original called for good cheese of Aragon)
4 cooked egg yolks
1 tsp salt, or more to taste
1 tsp powdered ginger
½ tsp. mace
¼ tsp freshly grated nutmeg
1 Tbsp. chopped fresh cilantro (green coriander leaf)
4 Tbsp. chopped fresh flat leaf parsley
1 tsp cinnamon-sugar
Cook the eggplants and onion in the broth until the eggplant is cooked through and the onion is soft. Drain through a sieve, pressing on the eggplant to squeeze out excess liquid. Place them in a chopping bowl and chop using a mezaluna. (You can use a flat surface and a regular knife, but it will be a lot messier.) When the mixture is diced to ¼ inch pieces, drain off any liquid that has gathered in the bowl, pressing the mixture to squeeze out the liquids. (If the mixture isn’t in a bowl yet, put it in one now.) Add the egg yolks, grated cheese, salt, ginger, mace, nutmeg, cilantro, and parsley. Continue chopping the ingredients together to a very fine dice. Place the mixture in an oiled casserole dish; cover and bake in a moderate oven (350˚ F) for 30 minutes. Remove the lid and sprinkle with the cinnamon-sugar.
Rice Casserole, adapted from Book of Cooking by Robin Carroll-Mann and Micaela Burnham, serves about 6
2 cups uncooked Arborio rice, washed and drained
4 cups chicken broth (or 4 cups water and ¼ cup olive oil)
A pinch of saffron
1 tsp salt or more to taste
4 (or more) unbroken raw egg yolks
Preheat the oven to 375˚ F. Grind the salt and saffron together in a small bowl with the back of a spoon (or in a mortar and pestle). Heat 1 cup of the broth to simmering in a small saucepan and add the salt and saffron mixture. Remove from heat and let steep for 15 minutes. Place the rice in a shallow oven proof dish, such as a glass 8” x 16” rectangular pan or the equivalent. Heat the remaining broth to boiling in a medium saucepan, then add the saffron liquid to it and stir to mix. Carefully pour the hot liquid over the rice. Cover the dish tightly with foil (or a glass cover if the dish has one), and bake in the oven for 30-35 minutes. Remove the dish from the oven and uncover it. Gently place the egg yolks on top of the rice, spaced evenly so they do not touch, and do not break them. Recover the dish and put it back in the oven for another 10 minutes. Check the yolks—they should be firm, but still liquid inside. Remove the dish from the oven and allow it to stand, covered, for another 5 minutes.
Note from Micaela: Egg yolks cooked in this way were very common in the casserole dishes of this time in Spain. Remarkably, this has become a trend in the modern world of haute cuisine and foodies, proving that everything old is new again. When you are served the rice, you break the yolk and allow its yummy yellow goodness to soak into the dish, adding richness to the flavors.
Note from Robin (whose redaction I unashamedly stole from her hand-out): This method of rice cooking is very suitable for large quantities. I’ve used disposable baking pans, covered in heavy duty aluminum foil. When cooking in quantity, it’s easiest to prepare the egg yolks separately. Take another pan and cover the bottom with a layer of cooked rice. Use this pan to bake as many egg yolks as will need to garnish your rice.
Fish Pastry, adapted from Book of Cooking by Micaela Burnham, serves 6
2 1/2 cups unbleached all-purpose flour
1 teaspoon salt
2/3 cup lard, chilled
1/3 cup ice water
……………………….
2 lbs, fish fillets, any fish will work for this, but especially white fleshed ocean fish or salmon
1 Tbsp olive oil
1 Tbsp white vinegar
½ tsp whole peppercorns
2 bay leaves
½ tsp coarse salt
½ tsp freshly ground pepper
2 large eggs
2 Tbsp. orange juice
Make up your pastry dough. Mix the salt and flour together, then add the lard, mixing it into the flour with your fingers, a couple of tablespoons at a time until the mixture is crumbly. Add the water, 1 Tablespoon at a time until the dough comes together without being wet. Form it into 2 balls. Wrap in plastic wrap and chill. Preheat oven to 400˚ F.
In a large skillet or poaching pan, place the fish fillets in a single layer. Pour in cool water to just cover the fish. Add the olive oil, white vinegar, and bay leaves. Bring the water to a simmer and poach the fish until just barely done; it can still be translucent in the center. Remove the fish with a slotted spoon to paper towels to drain. Discard poaching liquid. Roll out one of the balls of dough and place it in the bottom of a pie plate. Pat the fish fillets dry, then season them with the salt and pepper. Place them on the bottom crust, breaking them as necessary to fill the bottom, then stacking them until all are used. Roll out the second ball of dough and place it over the top of the fish. Crimp and seal the edges. Make a hole in the center of the top crust about ½ inch in diameter. Bake the pie for about 30-35 minutes, until crust is lightly browned.
Whisk together the eggs and orange juice until completely mixed. Remove the pie from the oven, pour the orange juice mixture through the hole in the top, then return to the pie to the oven for 3-5 more minutes to allow the egg to set.
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia (copyright Micaela Burnham 2011)
The food of 16th century Spain reflects its many influences; medieval European, Mediterranean ingredients, and the influence of the Moors, who ruled parts of Southern Spain until the late 15th century. By the late 16th century, we find ingredients of the New World, especially chilis. All of the extant cookbooks from Spain were written in Catalonia, an area on the Mediterranean coast. Its major city is Barcelona, directly on the coast. The area known as Aragon abuts Catalnoia to the west, and from the 12th century to the mid 15th century, the Kingdom of Aragon-Catalnia ruled a large amount of territory that also included Valencia, Naples (which included most of southern Italy in this period), and the islands of Sardinia and Sicily. In effect, the rulers of this Kingdom ruled most of the Western Mediterranean. During this same period, the Moors held lands in Southern Spain until they were driven out by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella in the late 15th century. Many recipes in the 16th century cookbooks contain recipes that claim to derive from French, Venetian, Genovese, Parman, and Lombardy sources, making the Spanish cuisine truly international in scope.
The earliest known European cookbook, An Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook of the 13th Century was almost certainly a translation of a Spanish Muslim cookbook. The next cookbook Is The Book of Sent Sovi, probably written in the early 14th century. The extant copy is late 15th century, and the book was still being widely circulated in the 16th century. In the 16th century we have the Libro de Guisades (the book of food) written in 1529 by Master Ruperto de Nola, and based on his earlier works Libro de Cozina (the book of cooking) written in 1525 and Art de Coch (the art of cooking) written in 1520. All of these books reflect the unique food culture of Spain. Seafood is by far the most common protein mentioned is these books, which is not surprising considering that Spain is a peninsula and that Catalonia is directly on the Mediterranean coast. Keep in mind that cookbooks of this time were not like those of today. They were memory aids for professional cooks, not intended to give detailed descriptions of cooking processes or even of all the ingredients.
Many sea creatures and fish are specifically named in the cookbooks. Second in importance was pork, used both as a meat, and also for the cooking fats of lard, bacon, and “pot grease”. The eating of pork became a test of one’s religious beliefs, and failure to eat it could get you locked up by the Inquisition. Chicken and other types of fowl were also mentioned with frequency. Peacock sauce is the first recipe in Sent Sovi. Mutton and lamb, goat, rabbit, hare, and beef were also mentioned.
Many types of legumes and grain were available, but the chickpea, so common in middle-eastern cuisine, was the most popular legume. Rice, a luxury item in much of Europe, was more common in Spain, as the climate allowed it to be grown there. The type of rice was more like the Arborio rice we know today; short plump grains that become soft and creamy when cooked. Almond trees also grow well in parts of Spain, and almond milk, that prized liquid of European cooking, was used extensively in Spanish dishes. Hazelnuts, pine nuts, and walnuts are also mentioned.
Citrus fruits were also cultivated in Spain. The bitter orange, Neroli, was used as a scent in the middle-ages and Renaissance, but sweet oranges were introduced to Spain in the 15th century from China via Portuguese traders. The Valencia orange, still popular today, was prolifically grown in that province. In the early 16th century sweet oranges were a great luxury reserved for the very rich, but by the end of that century, oranges were sold in English theatres for a few pennies. Lemons were also grown in Spain, and lemon juice was used frequently. Often it would be used as a sour agent where vinegar would be used elsewhere in Europe.
Pomegranates were grown and extensively used in Spanish cooking, again reflecting the influences of the Middle-East. References to pomegranate, bitter pomegranate, and bittersweet pomegranate appear extensively in the cookbooks. The differences probably reflect ripe, unripe, and partially ripe fruit. Verjuice, a souring agent used frequently in European cuisine was generally made from the juice of sour grapes or crab apples elsewhere. In Spain verjuice was made from, “lemons, oranges, bitter pomegranate or good [wine] vinegar.”
Herbs and spices were used extensively. Again, Spain benefitted from the Portuguese traders who sailed the world for exotic spices. Saffron, that most expensive of all spices, was grown in Spain, and was a feature of Spanish cooking, as it still is today. “Almori” a spice mixture derived from Middle-Eastern roots was a combination of bread crumbs, salt, cinnamon, and other spices such as pennyroyal, fennel, fenugreek, anise, thyme, coriander, cilantro, caraway or nigella. The Spanish word “salsa” means spices, and in period it referred to spice mixtures. Parsley, marjoram, and mint were the “Holy Trinity” of herbs, so often were they used in foods. Rosewater and rose vinegar, again reflecting the influence of the Moors, were common ingredients.
Of the many vegetable available and used, eggplant was clearly popular. Also mentioned are carrots, Mushrooms and truffles, gourds, squash, turnips, the alliums, onions, leeks, and garlic, and various greens—beet, chard, spinach, and arugula.
Sugar was much more accessible in the 16th century than it had been previously, and this is reflected in the sweets made in the 16th century. Honey was also used also, as were the wealth of fruits available. Candied nuts, sweet fritters, and nougat candies of ground nuts were some of the sweet treats available.
Cooking methods were typical of the period throughout Europe and the Middle-East; roasting in coals, spit roasting, boiling, frying, grilling, and baking in ovens and Dutch ovens. The use of casserole dishes played an important part in Spanish cooking. A heavy dish with a tight fitting lid, the casserole could be used in baking or could be buried in coals. It could also be used as a stew pot. Stews and casserole type dishes were some of the most popular.
Bibliography
The Book of Sent Sovi, Medieval Recipes from catalonia, Robin Vogelzang, trans., Joan Santanach, ed., 2008, ISBN 978-1-85566-164-6
“Pomegranates, Peacocks, and Pork: A 16th Century Spanish Cookbook,” a Pennsic class taught by Mistress Brighid ni Chiarain, OL (Robin Carroll-Mann)
An Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook of the 13th Century, Charles Perry, trans., http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Medieval/Cookbooks/Andalusian/andalusian7.htm#Heading347
Book of Cooking, Ruperto de Nola, 1525, Robin Carroll-Mann, trans., http://www.florilegium.org/files/FOOD-MANUSCRIPTS/Guisados1-art.text
A Drizzle of Honey, David M. Gitlitz and Kay Davidson, 1999, ISBN 0-312-19860-4
Recipes
Pottage of Noodles, adapted from Book of Cooking by Micaela Burnham, serves 4-6
It appears that the noodles are intended to soak up all of the broth while cooking, so be prepared to add more as the dish cooks.
1 lb fettuccini noodles, fresh or dried
2 quarts chicken broth
Salt to taste
1 cup grated Manchego cheese
Boil 1 quart of the broth with salt. When it boils, add the noodles and cook, stirring occasionally, until the noodles are soft (not al dente—they should be soft to the tooth). You may need to add broth as it is absorbed by the noodles. The amount will differ depending on the type of noodle. Remove the pot from the heat, cover and let stand for 5 minutes or so. Place noodles in a serving bowl with a bit of any broth that is left. Add the grated cheese and toss to distribute.
Egglant Casserole, adapted from Book of Cooking by Micaela Burnham, serves about 6
4 medium eggplants, peeled and cut into quarters
2 onions. Peeled and roughly chopped
2-3 quarts mutton broth (chicken or beef may be substituted)
1 cup grated Manchego cheese (the original called for good cheese of Aragon)
4 cooked egg yolks
1 tsp salt, or more to taste
1 tsp powdered ginger
½ tsp. mace
¼ tsp freshly grated nutmeg
1 Tbsp. chopped fresh cilantro (green coriander leaf)
4 Tbsp. chopped fresh flat leaf parsley
1 tsp cinnamon-sugar
Cook the eggplants and onion in the broth until the eggplant is cooked through and the onion is soft. Drain through a sieve, pressing on the eggplant to squeeze out excess liquid. Place them in a chopping bowl and chop using a mezaluna. (You can use a flat surface and a regular knife, but it will be a lot messier.) When the mixture is diced to ¼ inch pieces, drain off any liquid that has gathered in the bowl, pressing the mixture to squeeze out the liquids. (If the mixture isn’t in a bowl yet, put it in one now.) Add the egg yolks, grated cheese, salt, ginger, mace, nutmeg, cilantro, and parsley. Continue chopping the ingredients together to a very fine dice. Place the mixture in an oiled casserole dish; cover and bake in a moderate oven (350˚ F) for 30 minutes. Remove the lid and sprinkle with the cinnamon-sugar.
Rice Casserole, adapted from Book of Cooking by Robin Carroll-Mann and Micaela Burnham, serves about 6
2 cups uncooked Arborio rice, washed and drained
4 cups chicken broth (or 4 cups water and ¼ cup olive oil)
A pinch of saffron
1 tsp salt or more to taste
4 (or more) unbroken raw egg yolks
Preheat the oven to 375˚ F. Grind the salt and saffron together in a small bowl with the back of a spoon (or in a mortar and pestle). Heat 1 cup of the broth to simmering in a small saucepan and add the salt and saffron mixture. Remove from heat and let steep for 15 minutes. Place the rice in a shallow oven proof dish, such as a glass 8” x 16” rectangular pan or the equivalent. Heat the remaining broth to boiling in a medium saucepan, then add the saffron liquid to it and stir to mix. Carefully pour the hot liquid over the rice. Cover the dish tightly with foil (or a glass cover if the dish has one), and bake in the oven for 30-35 minutes. Remove the dish from the oven and uncover it. Gently place the egg yolks on top of the rice, spaced evenly so they do not touch, and do not break them. Recover the dish and put it back in the oven for another 10 minutes. Check the yolks—they should be firm, but still liquid inside. Remove the dish from the oven and allow it to stand, covered, for another 5 minutes.
Note from Micaela: Egg yolks cooked in this way were very common in the casserole dishes of this time in Spain. Remarkably, this has become a trend in the modern world of haute cuisine and foodies, proving that everything old is new again. When you are served the rice, you break the yolk and allow its yummy yellow goodness to soak into the dish, adding richness to the flavors.
Note from Robin (whose redaction I unashamedly stole from her hand-out): This method of rice cooking is very suitable for large quantities. I’ve used disposable baking pans, covered in heavy duty aluminum foil. When cooking in quantity, it’s easiest to prepare the egg yolks separately. Take another pan and cover the bottom with a layer of cooked rice. Use this pan to bake as many egg yolks as will need to garnish your rice.
Fish Pastry, adapted from Book of Cooking by Micaela Burnham, serves 6
2 1/2 cups unbleached all-purpose flour
1 teaspoon salt
2/3 cup lard, chilled
1/3 cup ice water
……………………….
2 lbs, fish fillets, any fish will work for this, but especially white fleshed ocean fish or salmon
1 Tbsp olive oil
1 Tbsp white vinegar
½ tsp whole peppercorns
2 bay leaves
½ tsp coarse salt
½ tsp freshly ground pepper
2 large eggs
2 Tbsp. orange juice
Make up your pastry dough. Mix the salt and flour together, then add the lard, mixing it into the flour with your fingers, a couple of tablespoons at a time until the mixture is crumbly. Add the water, 1 Tablespoon at a time until the dough comes together without being wet. Form it into 2 balls. Wrap in plastic wrap and chill. Preheat oven to 400˚ F.
In a large skillet or poaching pan, place the fish fillets in a single layer. Pour in cool water to just cover the fish. Add the olive oil, white vinegar, and bay leaves. Bring the water to a simmer and poach the fish until just barely done; it can still be translucent in the center. Remove the fish with a slotted spoon to paper towels to drain. Discard poaching liquid. Roll out one of the balls of dough and place it in the bottom of a pie plate. Pat the fish fillets dry, then season them with the salt and pepper. Place them on the bottom crust, breaking them as necessary to fill the bottom, then stacking them until all are used. Roll out the second ball of dough and place it over the top of the fish. Crimp and seal the edges. Make a hole in the center of the top crust about ½ inch in diameter. Bake the pie for about 30-35 minutes, until crust is lightly browned.
Whisk together the eggs and orange juice until completely mixed. Remove the pie from the oven, pour the orange juice mixture through the hole in the top, then return to the pie to the oven for 3-5 more minutes to allow the egg to set.
