A SURVEY OF RUSSIAN HISTORY TO 1600
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia (copyright Micaela Burnham, 2006)
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia (copyright Micaela Burnham, 2006)
- The name “Russia” is from the 17th cent. And was not used in period.
- The beginnings
- Before there was any recognizable independent state in Russian, there were colonies of other civilizations. There were Greek colonies along the Baltic coast as well as those of Scythians. After that the Sarmatians ruled the area, then the Goths who came down from the north in the 3rd cent. At the end of the 4th cent. it was the Huns that pushed in and conquered the local peoples and set up rule.
- The rudimentary beginnings of a Russian state began with the appearance of the Slavs in the northern Carpathians in the 5th cent. The Slaves were subjects of the Huns until the fall of that empire, at which point they spread in all direction. The eastern Slavs became the “Rus” or Russians.
- By the 7th cent. Viking trade and piracy were well established along the river networks in Russia, which opened the door to actual Viking conquest two centuries later. A major trade route from the Baltic region to Constantinople was down the Dnieper.
- In the mid-7th cent. most of Russian was held by the Khazars, who were a mix of Huns and tribes from the Caucuses and were ruled by a khan. They attempted to unify the forest regions and the steppes for the first time under one government.
- They were traders, essentially nomadic, though they did cultivate land.
- Legend says that they adopted Judaism, but were remarkably tolerant of other religions, and were allies to the pagan Slavs.
- In the 8th cent., the Arab began their expansion, which put pressure on the Khazars, who lost most of their lands in a military defeat in 737 C.E. The Slavs then looked to the Varangians—Vikings, for aid and protection. Varangian power grew as Khazar power waned.
- By the 9th century the Varangians took over rule of Novgorod in the north—the most important city at that time. A battle in 862 between the Varangians and the Khazars ended Khazar power and established the beginning of a ruling dynasty with Rurik, the ruler of south Jutland. Oleg, Rurik’s successor, reached further south, and captured Kiev in 878 from other Varangians. This began the era of Kievan Rus.
- Kievan Rus (10th—13th cent.)
- The ruling Varangians of Russian set up their capitol in Kiev, and their dynasty ruled from there.
- This period of Kievan domination ushered in a Renaissance in early Russian culture. Kiev was described by a traveler at the time as “a city glistening with the light of holy icons, fragrant with incense, ringing with praise and holy, heavenly songs.”
- The Slavic tribes were now unified under one government for the first time.
- The ruler was the suzerain prince or “Grand Prince” who ruled as the representative of the princely dynasty. The other major cities and areas, called principalities, were ruled by lesser prices. This is called the “appanage system.”
- The Christian Church recognized these rulers as God’s representatives on earth, which helped them consolidate their power.
- The introduction of a written literary language, Old Church Slavonic, which is based on a Hungarian dialect, opened up literature to Russia. The alphabet is Cyrillic. The oldest surviving manuscript in the “Ostromir Codex of 1056-7,” a collection of readings from the Gospels.
- Greek Orthodoxy was introduced as a State religion in 988 with the conversion of Prince Vladimir, although paganism continued in the countryside for a long time to come—well into the modern era.
- The Russian church had direct ties to the Greek church until the 15th cent.
- There was a strong monastic system in Russia from an early date. Many monasteries were in caves, and the monks were hermit ascetics.
- The icon was the most revered form of theological expression.
- The Russian Church did not tolerate changes in dogma or sacred phraseology. Despite this, Russian folktales of pagan origin were used to present sacred history.
- Russo-Byzantine art, best known for its architecture and icons, was born.
- An economy based on trade continued. The most important exports for Russia were furs, honey, wax, and tar from the forests. Slaves were by far the most important trade item.
- Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) developed the first written Russian legal code. He also strengthened the central government. After him, centralization declined.
- The dispossessed Anglo-Saxon royal family fled to Kiev after the Norman conquest in 1066, and Gita, one of Harald’s daughters, married Prince Vladimir (1112-1125).
- The Slavic tribes were now unified under one government for the first time.
- By the beginning of the 13th cent. there was a northern migration and a shift of power to Novgorod.
- Novgorod was ruled by a “posadnik” or mayor, and a ruling council. There was also a “veche” or popular assembly, which was common to all the principalities of Kievan Russia.
- This shift northeastward continued throughout the century.
- The fall of Constantinople in 1204 to the Crusaders brought the loss to Kiev of its important connections and privileges with the Greek Church.
- The Tatars, or Mongols, first became known to the Russians in 1223. A chronicler of the time wrote, “No one knows for certain who they are, or from where they come, or what their language is, or race, or faith, but they are called the Tatars.”
- At this same time there were invasions from the Teutonic Knights from the west.
- Mongol Rule
- By 1237 the Rus knew who the Tatars were, with the first major invasion by Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. Kiev was sacked in 1240.
- The Mongols held sway in Russian for 250 years, though their power was greatest during the first century. They formed a capitol on the Volga and adopted Islam as their religion.
- Novgorod and the importance of the Forest
- From the 13th cent., the power of the Grand prince dwindled as Novgorod once again increased in importance. The area around what is now Moscow also began to be settled. The appanage system began to disintegrate as the Grand Prince’s power dwindled.
- The Russian Church began to embrace the cult of the Virgin, recognizing the importance of the strong mother figure in Slavic folklore and culture.
- Export items from the forests were very important in this period.
- In 1242, Alexander Nevsky, the ruler of the area around Moscow, defeated the Teutonic Knights in a battle on the frozen river, effectively ending further invasions from the west at the time.
- Mongol power waned as pressure from the east, in the form of Tamerlane, and internal division in their far-flung empire created instability. Many smaller khanates were formed, including the khanate of Kypchuk, called the Golden Horde. This group was racially and ideologically diverse. As these small khanates began to was with each other, there was further disintegration of Mongol control in Russia.
- The Ascendency of Moscow
- The name comes from “Moskva” a Finnish word dating back to 1147 when Moscow was a small, obscure provincial center.
- At the end of the 13th cent., it was ruled by a some on Alexander Nevsky. His son, Daniel, made Moscow into a small principality.
- In 1326, the Russian Church moved its metropolitan seat to Moscow, greatly increasing its importance.
- The rise of the “Boyars” began in the late 13th century as well. These were lesser nobles, often without land, who were seeking their fortunes—much like the Knights errant of western Europe who caused so many problems there.
- The Mongols, who had joined forces with the warlike Lithuanians, continues to put pressure on Russian rulers, demanding taxes and tribute. The Lithuanians wanted land, and from 1377-1434, they had a great deal of power in Russia.
- The Throne of the Grand Prince moved to Moscow.
- In 1486 in was ascended by Ivan III, called the Great. He was the first ruler to call himself “czar” or king (from the Latin Caesar), rather than Grand prince. He was also the first to claim that he ruled all Russia.
- He reconquered Novgorod.
- He formed a boyars council.
- Serfdom became formalized and tied the Russian peasantry to the land by law.
- He married the last Byzantine princess, Sophia, in 1472.
- The double-headed eagle was adopted as the official seal of Russia.
- In 1486 in was ascended by Ivan III, called the Great. He was the first ruler to call himself “czar” or king (from the Latin Caesar), rather than Grand prince. He was also the first to claim that he ruled all Russia.
- The Mongols were finally driven out, though they continued to raid the borders for another 300 years.
- Monasticism became even more important in the 15th and 16th centuries and was characterized by fanaticism and belief in apocalyptic prophesy.
- The married priests were the “white” clergy, while the celibate monks were the “black” clergy. Since high church offices were usually filled by black clergy, it was not unusual for married priest to become monks when their wives died in order to advance. Local priests were often from the communities that they served, and in general were less well educated that the monks.
- “Hesychasm,” a mystical movement that began in the 14th cent., dominated monastic practice. It was believed that inner calm, achieved through darkness, fasting, and holding the breath, was a surer path to God than through the traditional route of sacraments and prayer.
- Extreme forms of spirituality arose in this period.
- “Iurodstvo”—folly for God’s sake, or holy fools, wandered the countyside. Not unlike the Sufis of Islam, and may well have been influenced by Sufiasm. Holy fools kept at court served the purpose of both court jester in the western tradition and soothsayer of the eastern tradition.
- “Stolpnichestvo”—the pillar of immobility.
- Mortification of the flesh led to self-flagellation and even self-castration.
- At the beginning of the 16th cent., a fantastic system of ranking, or precedence, among the highest noble families was adopted. The “mestnichestvo” was an inflexible code meant that no boyar could be obliged to discharge any official duty that was inferior to the duty that had been discharged at any time by a member of his family. This created chaoas in the running of the government, but was supported by the boyars.
- Ivan IV, called the Terrible (1533-1584)
- He ascended the throne at age three in 1533, but a regent reigned in his place until 1546. He ruled longer than any other Russian figure. The first regent was his mother, who died in 1538, possibly of poisoning.
- Starting out apparently well, Ivan modernized the military and formed an “assembly of the land.” He was highly religious, having been educated by monks. He was intelligent and had political flair. He expanded Russia’s borders with the conquest of some of the Tatar khanates in the Crimea.
- He eventually made himself a true dictator, disbanding every aspect of representative government by 1550. Many believe that he grew to be insane.
- He was the first ruler to be crowned a czar, and he believed in absolutism.
- He was viewed by his contemporaries, the kings of Western Europe, as being cruel and extreme. He became known for gruesome atrocities, not unlike those associated with a 15th cent. governor of Wallachia, named Dracula, Ttles and legends of whom were well known and popular in 16th cent. Russia. He also had a private “monastery” in which he indulged in “orgies of drunkeness, lust, and torture.”
- He disposed of their land the remaining boyar princes.
- He destroyed Novgorod, which has been the last bastion of rationalism and republican traditions. It was said that the nearby river overran its banks because of the number of corpses thrown into it. The city, more ancient than Kiev, never recovered.
- He had seven wives, many of whom did not fare well. He married his first wife, Anastasia, when he was 17. She was believed to have been a positive influence on Ivan, but she died suddenly in 1557.
- The “Oprichniks.” Ivan’s personal guard was expanded and sent out into the countryside. They became black robed and hooded vigilantes who roamed the country on black horses with a dog’s head and a broom (to “sweep clean”) on their saddles. They plumdered everywhere unter the pretext of rooting out sedition.
- Monasticism and religious fervor became even more fanatical.
- Anti-Semitism grew to large proportions and there were anti-Jewish pogroms in western Russia.
- Protestant leaders were also tried and executed.
- One of his closest advisors, a priest named Silvester, was the author of the “Domostroy” a book on household management, which is a monument to Ivan’s obsession with order.
- Rise of the Cossacks. The Cossacks were frontiersmen of the southern steppes, of mixed heritage. The name is Tatar. These men were often traders or pirates, as conditions indicated. During Ivan’s reign they became used more and more as mercenary soldiers. So powerful did they become, that they formed their own government under a military commander and ruled the area between the Dnieper and the Don in the western steppes between Russian and Poland. They may have been the first communists, as they held all property in common.
- Ivan warred with all his neighbors, Tatars in the Crimea, Poland, Lithuania, and Livonia.
- Ivan died without heir after murdering his own son in a fit of rage by striking him with an iron headed walking stick, just two years before his own death. His other surviving son, Fedor, was retarded. His first-born son, Dmitri, died young. But he also left at infant son, also Dmitri, by his seventh wife, Maria Nagoy.
- The Time of Troubles (1584-1613)
- This was the most destructive period of Russian history, making people long for the days of Ivan IV.
- Fedor succeeded in 1584, only to die childless in the first part of 1598.
- The two boyars best positioned to be czar were Nikita Romanov, the czar’s uncle by marriage, and Boris Godunov, a Tatar, and Ivan’s closest advisor, whose sister had been married to Fedor. Nikita ruled until his death, only a few months, and was succeeded by Boris in 1598. Plots began almost immediately.
- Boris ruled as regent until 1605. Since the only hope of the continuation of the dynasty of Ivan was in the infant Dmitri, it was around him that many plots revolved. The real Dmitri, and his mother, had retired to the countryside after Fedor took the throne, a common and perfectly proper thing for a rival to do. The child, an epileptic, died in 1591, although the real circumstances are not known. Boris was accused of orchestrating this by one faction, while another claimed Dmitri had never died, but had been hidden to grown up and avenge himself against Boris. Thus started the succession of pretenders to the throne with the “false Dmitri.”