BYZANTINE CUISINE, 4th-6th Centuries
The Byzantine Empire existed from roughly 330 CE, the seat of the Roman Empire moved east, until the late 15th century when it was finally conquered by the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Needless to say, cuisine changed a great deal over this period. Our focus today will be on early Byzantine cuisine, 4th-6th centuries CE. Our main sources for the cuisine of this period are the writings of two physicians, Orebasios, 4th cent., and Anthimus, 6th century. Both of these physicians wrote extensively about food and diet, often giving lists of foodstuffs. Another source is reference books of the period, called “Dream Books” that gave information about plants and animals, similar to the herbals of later periods.
Sources:
Byzantine Cuisine, by Henry Marks (2002): The translations from the Greek and Latin are good as far as they go. He does make some assumptions that I disagree with, and which are not based on anything but old wives’ tales. Do not use the recipe redactions included in this book. They are wildly inaccurate, very modern in taste profile, and show a complete lack of knowledge of Roman cuisine and cooking methods. The man can translate, but he can’t cook. Nor does he seem to be interested in making dishes that are true period reproductions.
Apicius, by Christopher Grocock and Sally Grainger (2006): This is the most recent translation of the well known Roman cook books, and by far the best. This book is in all ways superior to those that have come before, by authors who were sticklers for accuracy. Their researches extend far beyond merely translating the books, and include many other things of interest to recreationists. The recipes themselves are translated on pages facing the original Latin. There are no redactions—that is up to you.
Roman Cookery by Mark Grant (1999): The author is a fairly well known translator of Latin and Greek with a focus on food and culture. He also had training as a cook, which shows. He does give the original recipe translated into English above each redacted recipe. His redactions are more accurate, and when extrapolating, which is often necessary with classical recipes, he does so in a way that is both period and makes sense. He is British and the measurements are British (though they list equivalents), and he doesn’t season strongly enough in my opinion—a common fault among the British authors.
The Classical Cookbook by Andrew Dalby and Sally Grainger (1996): This book relies heavily on the translations of others, but they appear to be good translations. They do give the original translated recipes as well as their redactions. Ms. Grainger is apparently the experienced cook. Although also British, she seasons more authentically. I have made several of these recipes, and they have all turned out well.
Around the Roman Table by Patrick Faas (1994): The author is a food historian and chef, and is, or was, a well known TV personality in Europe. He relies on the translations of others as far as I can tell. I have no way to judge the accuracy of the translations. There is a lot of information about the culture of food and feasting that is very interesting. He spends a lot of time on ingredients, cooking methods, weights and measures, and includes actual menus. He lists the recipes in the original Latin, then the English translation, and then his redaction. Again, be prepared for British measurements. He uses, in my opinion, more accurate amounts of spicing than some of the other books.
RECIPES
These are my personal redactions based on the English translations in the book Byzantine Cuisine. In developing these, I have relied on my knowledge of Roman cuisine, cooking methods, etc., as well as the other books mentioned above. As early Byzantine culture was based on the Roman, I think this will provide more accurate dishes than those provided by the author. I have listed the page numbers in parentheses for your reference.
A Dish of Eggs serves 4 (pg. 80)
4 large eggs
1 Tbsp. fish sauce
2 Tbsp. olive oil
4 Tbsp. sweet white wine
More oil for the pan, about 1 Tbsp.
Comments: In period, egg dishes were almost always cooked in a patina. I believe this dish is more like a frittata than an omelet. Not for beginners—eggs are tricky and easy to overcook.
Directions: Pre-heat your oven to 350F. Place an oven-proof skillet on the stove over medium heat and pour in the oil for the pan and heat. Whisk together the eggs, fish sauce, oil, and wine. When the oil in the pan is hot, but not smoking, pour in the egg mixture. Shake the pan and whisk eggs lightly (like you would when making an omelet) until the bottom has just set. Put the skillet in the oven and cook until the top is set and very lightly browned, time will depend on the size of your skillet. Do not overcook or you will have leathery eggs. It’s OK for the center to be soft and slightly runny.
Cabbage Salad serves 4 (pg. 85)
½ of a large head of green or white cabbage, shredded
1 cup chopped fresh cilantro
¼ cup chopped fresh rue (optional, and no, it doesn't cause miscarriages)
1/2 cup red wine vinegar
¼ cup honey
1/8 tsp. asafetida powder
¼ tsp. salt
Comments: Rue is very bitter and difficult to find unless you grow it yourself. If you want a substitution, use fresh cilantro or flat leaf parsley. There should always be salt. If there is no garum in a dish, then salt is always added even if not mentioned. Asafoetida is really a substitute for silphium, but it was also used during this period. You can find it in Indian grocery stores. It is not for the faint of heart—very pungent with a garlic-like smell and taste. A little goes a long way. After use, put the bottle in a zip-lock bag, and do not store it with your other spices.
Directions: Wash the shredded cabbage and drain completely, then pat dry. Stir in the other chopped herbs and mix completely, and then chop again until they are all chopped very fine, or pulse quickly in a food processor. Place the greens in a serving bowl. Mix the vinegar and honey and stir or shake until completely blended, then whisk in the asafoetida and salt. Pour this over the greens in the bowl and toss to mix thoroughly.
Sauce for Meat or Poultry makes about 1 cup (pg. 97)
½ cup red wine vinegar
½ cup red wine
2 tbsp. honey
¼ tsp. freshly ground black pepper
¼ tsp. cinnamon
1/8 -1/4 tsp. spikenard, to taste (check Indian groceries for this)
1/8 tsp salt or ¼ tsp. fish sauce
2 Tbsp sesame seeds, toasted, then ground fine in a spice or coffee mill
Comments: There is little documentation for sauces made from pan drippings, as the author suggests. Roman sauces were based on vinegar, wine, garum, and honey. They would have at least two of these ingredients, and often all four. They are not listed as ingredients in the original recipe because cooks knew to start with a basic sauce and then add other ingredients. Sesame seeds would not have been left whole in this recipe; spices were always ground, and nearly all seed spices must be toasted before use to bring out the flavors. Use real cinnamon, not “American cinnamon” which is really cassia.
Directions: In a small saucepan over medium-low heat, put the vinegar, wine, and honey. Stir until honey is completely dissolved, then increase heat to medium and cook until slightly reduced and thickened. Reduce heat to lowest setting and stir in the remaining ingredients. Continue to cook over low heat until the sauce is thickened to desired consistency.
Roast Capon and Sauce serves 4 (pgs. 114, 115, 116)
1 large capon, cut into pieces but left on the bone (or hen)
1 tsp. salt
1 cup apple cider vinegar
¼ cup honey
2/3 cup white wine vinegar
3 Tbsp. honey
1/3 cup fish sauce
2 Tbsp. olive oil
½ tsp. ground yellow mustard
1 tsp. ground cumin
Comments: You can use any type of vinegar for the chicken. Cider vinegar was certainly well known and will enhance the sweet and sour flavors here. Most sauces for fowl included some oil and honey, so I have added them. Mustard is mellowed in flavor when cooked, which I believe would be the desired effect here. You can substitute a large chicken for the capon if desired.
Directions: Mix the apple cider vinegar and the first honey together in a small pan over low heat. Cook and stir until honey is completely dissolved. Remove from heat. Wash and pat dry the pieces of capon; salt lightly on all sides. You can either roast the pieces in a pan in the oven, or cook them on the grill—your choice. Baste the capon pieces with your sweet and sour sauce and roast, basting periodically, until chicken is done. Remove chicken from heat to serving platter, cover with foil, and allow to rest for 15 minutes. Combine the white wine vinegar, honey, fish sauce, and oil in a small saucepan over medium heat. Cook and stir until blended and slightly reduced; add the mustard and cumin and reduce heat to low. Cook and stir for about 5 minutes or until reduced and thickened as desired. Uncover the capon and slice the meat off of the bones with a sharp knife, cutting them into small pieces; place on a serving platter. Serve the sauce on the side.
Cod Cooked in Sauce serves 4 (pg. 118)
1 lb cod filets
½ cup white wine vinegar
1/3 cup honey
2 Tbsp. fish sauce
¼ cup olive oil
Water to cover
Comments: When fish was cooked in sauce, it was generally poached. This dish would almost certainly have had another sauce when served. It could be the same sauce it was cooked in, a different sauce entirely, or simply some oxymel (the vinegar-honey mixture).
Directions: Put a large skillet, pan, or fish poacher on top of the stove; spread a bit of olive oil on the bottom of the pan, then pour in enough water to just cover the bottom. Put in the fish filets so that they do not overlap and are not too crowded. Add water until fish are just covered. Mix the vinegar, honey, fish sauce, and oil and whisk until well combined. Pour this over the fish. Cover the pan and cook over medium heat until the fish are cooked through and flaky. Time will differ according to thickness of the filets.
Honey Cakes serves 4 (pg. 148)
7 oz. unbleached wheat flour
3 Tbsp. olive oil
1 egg
2 Tbsp. sweet white wine
½ tsp. sea salt
½ tsp. pepper
Olive oil for frying
3 fluid oz. honey
Comments: The author is way off base with this recipe, as he is in later recipes by suggesting that phyllo dough existed at this time. Separating eggs and using the whites as a leavening agent was not done until the 16th century. Most pastry in this period and earlier was very simple, and generally fried. I have borrowed this recipe from Roman Cookery (pgs.108-109), with a few changes of my own. I think cinnamon could be substituted for the pepper in this recipe if desired.
Directions: Beat the egg then beat in the olive oil, salt, and pepper. Mix this into the flour until it is the consistency of breadcrumbs. Add the wine and gently combine to form a smooth dough; adding more wine or flour as needed. Wrap in plastic wrap and chill 1 hour. Remove to a lightly floured pastry slab and roll out to 1/8 inch thickness. Cut into rounds 1-2 inches in diameter with a pastry cutter. Heat a heavy skillet with about ¼ inch of olive oil in the bottom until very hot but not smoking. Drop the pastry rounds into the hot oil and cook until they puff up and are golden on both sides. Remove from hot oil and drain on paper towels. Heat the honey in a heavy pan until it bubbles. One at a time, drop the fried biscuits into the honey for a few seconds. Remove to a serving plate covered in parchment paper.
The Byzantine Empire existed from roughly 330 CE, the seat of the Roman Empire moved east, until the late 15th century when it was finally conquered by the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Needless to say, cuisine changed a great deal over this period. Our focus today will be on early Byzantine cuisine, 4th-6th centuries CE. Our main sources for the cuisine of this period are the writings of two physicians, Orebasios, 4th cent., and Anthimus, 6th century. Both of these physicians wrote extensively about food and diet, often giving lists of foodstuffs. Another source is reference books of the period, called “Dream Books” that gave information about plants and animals, similar to the herbals of later periods.
- What did they eat? Types of foods
- Vegetable foods
- Grains: all types of wheat, rye oats, barley, millet, spelt, and vetch. Rice was available but expensive. It was often prescribed for invalids (rich ones), as it was believed to be easy to digest and had soothing properties.
- Grains were made into breads, porridges, pancakes, and fritters. Bread was an everyday staple in the diet for both rich and poor, though the quality differed, and it could be leavened or unleavened (with or without yeast). Porridge is merely grain cooked in some type of liquid, often with other ingredients added as well. Pancakes and fritters are unleavened dough that is fried.
- Vegetables: cabbages, lettuces, garlic, radishes, leeks, onions, cucumbers, celeriac, endive, watercress, spinach, kohlrabi, eggplant, turnips, cauliflower, artichokes, taro, carob, beets, squash, mushrooms including truffles, kohlrabi, eggplant, asparagus, parsnips, pumpkins, mallows
- Herbs and spices: spikenard, parsley, horseradish, lovage, tarragon, capers, cilantro and coriander (leaf and seed of the same plant), cinnamon, cloves, caraway, nutmeg, cumin, saffron, camphor, fennel, pepper—probably the most popular seasoning after garum, sesame, mustard, marjoram, dill, anise, basil, ginger, mint, savory, silphium (a pungent herb that was hugely popular in Roman cuisine, it was eaten to extinction by the end of the 6th century. Asafoetida is an acceptable modern substitute.)
- Fruits and nuts: melons, grapes, figs, various berries, apricots, peaches, pears, apples, medlars, quinces, pomegranates, dates, plums, lemons, citron, jujubes, cherries, almonds, acorns, walnuts, chestnuts, pine nuts, hazelnuts, pistachios
- Legumes: chick peas, lupin, black-eyed peas, broad beans, lentils or all types, kidney beans of all types, peas of all types
- Animal products
- Eggs of all types of domestic and wild fowl were used
- Milk products: Milk from a variety of domestic animals was used—cows, sheep, goats, water buffalo, and horses. Milk itself was drunk as a beverage.
- Cheeses: both hard and soft cheeses were used. Fresh cheeses seemed the most popular. These would be cheeses like feta, cottage cheese, ricotta, and mozzarella. They did make aged cheeses as well.
- Yogurt: Yogurt entered Byzantine cuisine around the 6th century. The name in Greek is “oxygala,” literally vinegar-milk. This could also refer to sour milk or buttermilk, but from the uses, it appears to be a thicker product, so yogurt is more likely. It became a popular ingredient in later periods, and is used extensively in Turkey today.
- Fish and seafood—these were staples in the diet, and an important source of protein. Huge varieties were available, many of which have different names today, or no longer exist. Crab, lobster, squid, cuttlefish, oysters, scallops, crawfish, shrimp, prawns, octopus, mussels, and sea urchin were all eaten. Fish—mullet, red mullet (a highly prized and very expensive fish), tuna, hake, trout, sturgeon, eels, perch, pike, salmon, sole, bream, turbot, and cod are some that are still familiar to us.
- Meat and Poultry
- Meats: pigs, cows, goats, sheep, deer, hare, oxen, roe deer, probably wild boar. Baby animals were considered delicacies.
- Poultry: chickens, peacocks, turtledoves, starlings, cranes, partridges, doves, sparrows, ducks, geese, thrushes, and quail are mentioned, plus many other wild birds.
- Aging: The Byzantine cooks appreciated that aging meat made it more tender. This is due to decomposition and breaking down of the cell walls. It is still a common practice today, but not for as long. Birds, even domestic chickens were hung to age for 1-3 days.
- Seasonings
- Salt
- Sugar and honey
- Cooking fats
- Olive oil
- Butter
- Lard
- Prepared foods
- Beverages: water was the most common, followed by milk and wine. A variety of wines were known, and some were sweetened, and/or spiced. Wine was also a common ingredient in cooking. Fruit juices, which could also be sweetened and spiced, were also drunk.
- Honey-wine
- Julep: sugar or honey mixed with water
- Vinegar and water beverages such as sukanjabin
- Almond milk—a beverage or ingredient
- Hot drinks were made from decoctions of herbs and spices such as cumin, fennel, pepper, or anise. These were often prescribed for the sick.
- Garum: the fermented fish sauce so popular with the Romans, continues to be used throughout this period as a sauce and as an important ingredient in prepared dishes. Garum is made from salt, fish, and herbs, which are layered in glass or earthenware containers and kept warm until fermentation/decomposition renders the ingredients into a thick liquid. Although the process sounds unpalatable to most modern people, similar products are used extensively throughout the world today. Asian fish sauces are very similar, but lack the herbal note. Anchovy paste is used in European haute cuisine as a flavor enhancer. If you have every used Worcestershire Sauce, you have used the equivalent of garum. When Mistress Maysun made garum according to an ancient Roman recipe and served it at a feast, it was very popular with the diners.
- Beverages: water was the most common, followed by milk and wine. A variety of wines were known, and some were sweetened, and/or spiced. Wine was also a common ingredient in cooking. Fruit juices, which could also be sweetened and spiced, were also drunk.
- Vegetable foods
- How did they prepare their food? Cooking methods
- Baking and roasting
- Ovens: the ovens used in early Byzantium were virtually identical to those used in Rome several three centuries earlier, and there were a variety of styles and sizes. Every home that had a kitchen had a small clay oven sitting on a brick and clay counter top. These small ovens were domes and had a front opening. A fire was made inside and allowed to burn to coals to heat the interior, then swept out, the food placed inside, and the door blocked up. This type of oven continued to be used throughout the middle-ages, and is an efficient method of baking bread.
- Hearth ovens—these are more like a modern fireplace without the chimney, and were used for baking large things, like whole animals. Often these were outside the home.
- “Portable” hearths—many of these have been found in the Pompeii ruins. Although theoretically portable, they would have been very heavy, and were often raised off the floor on brick and secured in place. There could be ceramic (clay) or metal, usually bronze. These ovens consisted of a firebox which held the wood or coals, and 1-3 circular or semi-circular wall supports raised above the firebox level at the back. These supports were used to support pots above the level of the fire at a height suitable for simmering or slow cooking dishes like soups and stews. The large area in the front would support a grill or on which one could cook over a higher heat.
- Patina cooking: Patina, which means “dish” in Latin, refers to foods cooked in a particular way. The patina itself is similar to a modern casserole dish with a lid. It was broad and fairly shallow with a domed lid and a partially domed bottom, flattened at the center bottom so it would not tip over. The food is placed in the patina and covered then buried in the coals (or sometimes on a very low trivet) of a hardwood fire so that is receives heat on all sides while cooking. This is still a common way for campers to cook, though now we use cast iron pots.
- Testum baking: This method of baking bread is mentioned often in Byzantine writing. Testum is the Latin word for a domed (or deep dish pie shaped) ceramic lid. The bread dough is prepared and placed on a clean stone or brick surface. The testum is placed over it, then coals are heaped over on top it. High heats can be achieved with this method—up to 400˚F. Because of that, the testum might have a removable knob at the top to help control heat. Byzantine authors describe the baking of bread by this method to often produce bread with over cooked crust and raw crumb.
- Ovens: the ovens used in early Byzantium were virtually identical to those used in Rome several three centuries earlier, and there were a variety of styles and sizes. Every home that had a kitchen had a small clay oven sitting on a brick and clay counter top. These small ovens were domes and had a front opening. A fire was made inside and allowed to burn to coals to heat the interior, then swept out, the food placed inside, and the door blocked up. This type of oven continued to be used throughout the middle-ages, and is an efficient method of baking bread.
- Gridiron cooking: this method, well known to modern grill cooks, involves having a metal structure with longish legs and a grill top under which you make your fire. This could be as simple as a long legged trivet for use with a single pot, or a much larger structure for multiple pots. There was a special type with a grid, rather than just bars that was used for grilling.
- Cooking in liquids: Boiling, simmering, and poaching were well known methods of cooking in liquid.
- Spit roasting was probably the most common method of cooking large animals. Roasting or grilling over fire was the most common method of cooking meats, but roasting in the oven in a patina or under a testum were also done, especially if the meat was being cooked with other ingredients or in a liquid.
- Charcoal or wood? There are differences in the heat and other properties of these substances. Charcoal is light and easy to transport, and it heats with a minimal amount of smoke. It makes a slightly cooler fire, and it is easier to control its temperature for delicate dishes needing very low heat. An aged hardwood fire can produce very high heats and will boil water quickly. It smokes more and has other properties that can add flavor, especially to meat dishes. Both charcoal and wood can be used for all types of cooking by an experienced cook who knows how to “read” the fire.”
- Baking and roasting
- How did their food taste? Common flavors, textures, and combinations of foods
- Strong flavors: It is clear from the existing recipes that the Byzantine people enjoyed strongly flavored foods. Spikenard, garum, mustard and pepper were favorite seasonings.
- Sweet and Sour: Vinegar in some form is used in almost every existing recipe and sauce. Honey is another common ingredient. In fact oxymel, a vinegar and honey mixture, is a common ingredient in prepared foods.
- Sauces: Much of the flavoring of dishes was done with sauces, of which there were of great variety. Sometimes the main ingredient was cooked in the sauce, but more often, multiple sauces were served on the side.
- Dining customs
- Couches versus chairs—during this period, dining was still done reclining as in the Roman fashion. However, by the end of the 6th century, chairs were being used in combination with couches. In later periods, couches were gone, and chairs were used exclusively.
- The table: Tablecloths were the norm. Plates, cups, and bowls were used by diners, with larger serving dishes holding the food. Spoons and fingers were the main utensils. A skewer, or single tined fork if you prefer, was used to spear food starting in the 4th century. Forks of two tines, and maybe three were introduced in the centuries that followed. Knives were not brought to the table, presumably because foods were cut into bite size in the kitchen, or at a serving board by servants. Utensils were made of wood, bone, ivory or metals of all types. Plates were ceramic or metal. Napkins appear to have been introduced in the 5th cent.
- Table manners: Hands were washed before and after meals. There were specific prohibitions against “double dipping,” blowing on hot food, or licking your fingers. Gift giving was common at banquets of the wealthy, and could go both ways between host and diners.
Sources:
Byzantine Cuisine, by Henry Marks (2002): The translations from the Greek and Latin are good as far as they go. He does make some assumptions that I disagree with, and which are not based on anything but old wives’ tales. Do not use the recipe redactions included in this book. They are wildly inaccurate, very modern in taste profile, and show a complete lack of knowledge of Roman cuisine and cooking methods. The man can translate, but he can’t cook. Nor does he seem to be interested in making dishes that are true period reproductions.
Apicius, by Christopher Grocock and Sally Grainger (2006): This is the most recent translation of the well known Roman cook books, and by far the best. This book is in all ways superior to those that have come before, by authors who were sticklers for accuracy. Their researches extend far beyond merely translating the books, and include many other things of interest to recreationists. The recipes themselves are translated on pages facing the original Latin. There are no redactions—that is up to you.
Roman Cookery by Mark Grant (1999): The author is a fairly well known translator of Latin and Greek with a focus on food and culture. He also had training as a cook, which shows. He does give the original recipe translated into English above each redacted recipe. His redactions are more accurate, and when extrapolating, which is often necessary with classical recipes, he does so in a way that is both period and makes sense. He is British and the measurements are British (though they list equivalents), and he doesn’t season strongly enough in my opinion—a common fault among the British authors.
The Classical Cookbook by Andrew Dalby and Sally Grainger (1996): This book relies heavily on the translations of others, but they appear to be good translations. They do give the original translated recipes as well as their redactions. Ms. Grainger is apparently the experienced cook. Although also British, she seasons more authentically. I have made several of these recipes, and they have all turned out well.
Around the Roman Table by Patrick Faas (1994): The author is a food historian and chef, and is, or was, a well known TV personality in Europe. He relies on the translations of others as far as I can tell. I have no way to judge the accuracy of the translations. There is a lot of information about the culture of food and feasting that is very interesting. He spends a lot of time on ingredients, cooking methods, weights and measures, and includes actual menus. He lists the recipes in the original Latin, then the English translation, and then his redaction. Again, be prepared for British measurements. He uses, in my opinion, more accurate amounts of spicing than some of the other books.
RECIPES
These are my personal redactions based on the English translations in the book Byzantine Cuisine. In developing these, I have relied on my knowledge of Roman cuisine, cooking methods, etc., as well as the other books mentioned above. As early Byzantine culture was based on the Roman, I think this will provide more accurate dishes than those provided by the author. I have listed the page numbers in parentheses for your reference.
A Dish of Eggs serves 4 (pg. 80)
4 large eggs
1 Tbsp. fish sauce
2 Tbsp. olive oil
4 Tbsp. sweet white wine
More oil for the pan, about 1 Tbsp.
Comments: In period, egg dishes were almost always cooked in a patina. I believe this dish is more like a frittata than an omelet. Not for beginners—eggs are tricky and easy to overcook.
Directions: Pre-heat your oven to 350F. Place an oven-proof skillet on the stove over medium heat and pour in the oil for the pan and heat. Whisk together the eggs, fish sauce, oil, and wine. When the oil in the pan is hot, but not smoking, pour in the egg mixture. Shake the pan and whisk eggs lightly (like you would when making an omelet) until the bottom has just set. Put the skillet in the oven and cook until the top is set and very lightly browned, time will depend on the size of your skillet. Do not overcook or you will have leathery eggs. It’s OK for the center to be soft and slightly runny.
Cabbage Salad serves 4 (pg. 85)
½ of a large head of green or white cabbage, shredded
1 cup chopped fresh cilantro
¼ cup chopped fresh rue (optional, and no, it doesn't cause miscarriages)
1/2 cup red wine vinegar
¼ cup honey
1/8 tsp. asafetida powder
¼ tsp. salt
Comments: Rue is very bitter and difficult to find unless you grow it yourself. If you want a substitution, use fresh cilantro or flat leaf parsley. There should always be salt. If there is no garum in a dish, then salt is always added even if not mentioned. Asafoetida is really a substitute for silphium, but it was also used during this period. You can find it in Indian grocery stores. It is not for the faint of heart—very pungent with a garlic-like smell and taste. A little goes a long way. After use, put the bottle in a zip-lock bag, and do not store it with your other spices.
Directions: Wash the shredded cabbage and drain completely, then pat dry. Stir in the other chopped herbs and mix completely, and then chop again until they are all chopped very fine, or pulse quickly in a food processor. Place the greens in a serving bowl. Mix the vinegar and honey and stir or shake until completely blended, then whisk in the asafoetida and salt. Pour this over the greens in the bowl and toss to mix thoroughly.
Sauce for Meat or Poultry makes about 1 cup (pg. 97)
½ cup red wine vinegar
½ cup red wine
2 tbsp. honey
¼ tsp. freshly ground black pepper
¼ tsp. cinnamon
1/8 -1/4 tsp. spikenard, to taste (check Indian groceries for this)
1/8 tsp salt or ¼ tsp. fish sauce
2 Tbsp sesame seeds, toasted, then ground fine in a spice or coffee mill
Comments: There is little documentation for sauces made from pan drippings, as the author suggests. Roman sauces were based on vinegar, wine, garum, and honey. They would have at least two of these ingredients, and often all four. They are not listed as ingredients in the original recipe because cooks knew to start with a basic sauce and then add other ingredients. Sesame seeds would not have been left whole in this recipe; spices were always ground, and nearly all seed spices must be toasted before use to bring out the flavors. Use real cinnamon, not “American cinnamon” which is really cassia.
Directions: In a small saucepan over medium-low heat, put the vinegar, wine, and honey. Stir until honey is completely dissolved, then increase heat to medium and cook until slightly reduced and thickened. Reduce heat to lowest setting and stir in the remaining ingredients. Continue to cook over low heat until the sauce is thickened to desired consistency.
Roast Capon and Sauce serves 4 (pgs. 114, 115, 116)
1 large capon, cut into pieces but left on the bone (or hen)
1 tsp. salt
1 cup apple cider vinegar
¼ cup honey
2/3 cup white wine vinegar
3 Tbsp. honey
1/3 cup fish sauce
2 Tbsp. olive oil
½ tsp. ground yellow mustard
1 tsp. ground cumin
Comments: You can use any type of vinegar for the chicken. Cider vinegar was certainly well known and will enhance the sweet and sour flavors here. Most sauces for fowl included some oil and honey, so I have added them. Mustard is mellowed in flavor when cooked, which I believe would be the desired effect here. You can substitute a large chicken for the capon if desired.
Directions: Mix the apple cider vinegar and the first honey together in a small pan over low heat. Cook and stir until honey is completely dissolved. Remove from heat. Wash and pat dry the pieces of capon; salt lightly on all sides. You can either roast the pieces in a pan in the oven, or cook them on the grill—your choice. Baste the capon pieces with your sweet and sour sauce and roast, basting periodically, until chicken is done. Remove chicken from heat to serving platter, cover with foil, and allow to rest for 15 minutes. Combine the white wine vinegar, honey, fish sauce, and oil in a small saucepan over medium heat. Cook and stir until blended and slightly reduced; add the mustard and cumin and reduce heat to low. Cook and stir for about 5 minutes or until reduced and thickened as desired. Uncover the capon and slice the meat off of the bones with a sharp knife, cutting them into small pieces; place on a serving platter. Serve the sauce on the side.
Cod Cooked in Sauce serves 4 (pg. 118)
1 lb cod filets
½ cup white wine vinegar
1/3 cup honey
2 Tbsp. fish sauce
¼ cup olive oil
Water to cover
Comments: When fish was cooked in sauce, it was generally poached. This dish would almost certainly have had another sauce when served. It could be the same sauce it was cooked in, a different sauce entirely, or simply some oxymel (the vinegar-honey mixture).
Directions: Put a large skillet, pan, or fish poacher on top of the stove; spread a bit of olive oil on the bottom of the pan, then pour in enough water to just cover the bottom. Put in the fish filets so that they do not overlap and are not too crowded. Add water until fish are just covered. Mix the vinegar, honey, fish sauce, and oil and whisk until well combined. Pour this over the fish. Cover the pan and cook over medium heat until the fish are cooked through and flaky. Time will differ according to thickness of the filets.
Honey Cakes serves 4 (pg. 148)
7 oz. unbleached wheat flour
3 Tbsp. olive oil
1 egg
2 Tbsp. sweet white wine
½ tsp. sea salt
½ tsp. pepper
Olive oil for frying
3 fluid oz. honey
Comments: The author is way off base with this recipe, as he is in later recipes by suggesting that phyllo dough existed at this time. Separating eggs and using the whites as a leavening agent was not done until the 16th century. Most pastry in this period and earlier was very simple, and generally fried. I have borrowed this recipe from Roman Cookery (pgs.108-109), with a few changes of my own. I think cinnamon could be substituted for the pepper in this recipe if desired.
Directions: Beat the egg then beat in the olive oil, salt, and pepper. Mix this into the flour until it is the consistency of breadcrumbs. Add the wine and gently combine to form a smooth dough; adding more wine or flour as needed. Wrap in plastic wrap and chill 1 hour. Remove to a lightly floured pastry slab and roll out to 1/8 inch thickness. Cut into rounds 1-2 inches in diameter with a pastry cutter. Heat a heavy skillet with about ¼ inch of olive oil in the bottom until very hot but not smoking. Drop the pastry rounds into the hot oil and cook until they puff up and are golden on both sides. Remove from hot oil and drain on paper towels. Heat the honey in a heavy pan until it bubbles. One at a time, drop the fried biscuits into the honey for a few seconds. Remove to a serving plate covered in parchment paper.
