When in Rome: Beginning Roman Cookery
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia (copyright Micaela Burnham 2011)
Origins
Roman cookery, like so many other things, came from the Greek tradition, and can be traced to the 4th century B.C.E. in Sicily, a Greek holding, which was a center of culinary arts at the time. Cooks there were doing proper carving of meat and fish. They used sauces and garnishes with their dishes, and garum, the ubiquitous fish sauce of the Roman world, was in evidence. Aquaculture was the main protein of the Greeks—not a surprise when much of the Greek world was made up of islands, but they also enjoyed pork.
Classic Roman cuisine grew from these Greek roots after Rome conquered Greece, enslaving much of its population, usurping their religion, and incorporating much of Greek culture into their own. But like all things “copied” from the Greeks, Romans put their own stamp on it, expanded, and improved it. Fish and pork were the staple proteins of Roman cuisine, but all types of meats, both domestic and wild, were available to wealthy Romans. In the first century of the Common Era, a tradition of fine dining developed among the wealthy citizens of Rome. All men of merit wanted to serve good food in style, and the wealthy merchant class emulated this. The Epicurean philosophy taught that the basis of human existence is found in pleasure, but that pleasure could only be achieved in temperate living. This later developed into a trend where Epicureanism meant following a life of luxury. Into this environment the first “foodies” appeared.
The best known of these was Marcus Gavius Apicius who lived during the reign of the Emperor Tiberius Caesar. He was the archetypical gourmand; so much so that his name “Apicius” came to mean “gourmet” in the centuries after his death. Not all the recipes collected in the well known cookbook bearing his name were actually his recipes, they were what was considered gourmet style recipes of the time. This book is the most complete source of urban and cosmopolitan recipes of the late Empire.
Cooking techniques, equipment, and kitchens
The majority of kitchens in the Roman Empire were semi-open, usually open to a courtyard on one side. This allowed smoke to escape as well as easy access to any cooking that might be going on outdoors. In the kitchen itself, the main cooking and preparation surface was a large masonry platform, similar to a modern counter top, against the walls. In a corner of this would be an oven built upon it, and under it was storage for wood and charcoal, both of which were used for cooking by the Romans. Most of the cooking would be done on braziers set upon the platform with the cooking fire directly on the masonry surface. Larger braziers or portable hearths would be placed on the floor or in the kitchen courtyard. Many types of portable hearths existed, both ceramic and metal have been found. Charcoal was used for grilling meats and for things that needed low steady heat. Grills or “gridirons” were used for grilling. Baking was done in the ovens or in a testura, a ceramic cover that coals could be piled on top of and around—functioning much like a modern Dutch oven. A larger version called a clibanus was used for roasting meats. The patina, a cooking dish with a rounded bottom and domed top, could be buried in coals, set on a trivet above the coals, or set directly into coals depending on the type of heat needed to properly cook the dish. Mortars and pestles were found in numerous sizes, materials, and weights. They were the food processors and blenders of the Roman kitchen. Many dishes were served as pastes or purees in Roman cuisine. Most experienced modern home cooks, could walk into a Roman kitchen and cook in it.
Dining
Formal dining, such as a dinner party, was done reclining on couches that were arranged on three sides of the dining table. Each couch was wide enough to accommodate three diners, and certain positions were reserved for those of highest rank. In the early Empire, any women present would sit on stools on the fourth side of the table, but this gave way to all diners, male and female, reclining during the meal. Family meals were rarely eaten in the formal dining room, and everyone sat on stools at the table. Cutlery consisted of spoons, and very occasionally a small spear like a fork with a single tine. Most food was eaten with the fingers. As a result, foods were served already cut up or were prepared in bite sized morsels. Napkins were provided.
Ingredients
There are certain ingredients, common to Roman cuisine, that are little used today, that deserve special note and explanations.
Asafoetida: called Parthian laser by the Romans, this spice is still used in Indian cooking today, and it is widely available in Indian stores. This is the closest we have to the Roman laser or sylphium, which was so prized by the Romans that it became extinct. It is a very pungent spice that smells and tastes a bit like garlic—but garlic on steroids. It should only be used in cooked foods, as heat tames the flavor. Never use it raw.
Defrutum/sapa: a flavored syrup made by boiling down grape juice and adding spices.
Garum/liquamen/muria: a salty fish sauce made by fermenting fish parts with salt and herbs. The exact ingredients differ greatly over time and from place to place. It was used liberally as both an ingredient and a sauce. Thai fish sauce is an acceptable substitute. I also make a thicker garum by mixing fresh minced herbs into anchovy paste. If thinned with water it is hydrogarum, thinned with wine, oenogarum, and thinned with vinegar, oxygarum. I like to use oxygarum, as the wine vinegar I thin it with gives the garum a nice balance of flavors. A friend of mine, Mistress Maysun (Missy Pankake) once fermented a batch of garum using a beer carboy. The results were quite tasty. We served it at a feast, and the entire batch was used up by the diners.
Mulsam: a mixture of wine, honey, water, and spices served as a drink.
Passum: raisin wine. This is still available at specialty stores, but it is very expensive. As an alternative consider soaking macerated golden raisins in white wine for several weeks, then strain it out. This was a common ingredient in Roman cuisine.
Patina: as stated earlier, this was a type of cooking dish, but the word also refers to dishes that are cooked and set with eggs. They were most likely cooked in the pan of the same name.
Breads
Bread was a staple food throughout the Roman world. Their armies marched on a diet of bread and pulses—a legume porridge. Although there are no exact extant recipes for Roman breads, there are descriptions. They had a wide variety. In general, the whiter the bread was, the wealthier the purchaser of it. The poor ate whole grain bread with lots of bran, probably dense and not risen very high. The rich had a lot more choices. They had soft spongy breads, flat breads, pastry, and crackers as well as fine soft well risen plain bread. Breads might have other ingredients in them such as olive oil, olives, or cheese. Placenta was a type of pastry. Pastry doughs were made with lard or olive oil instead of butter. Panis adipatus was a type of pizza crust. Panis militaris were soldiers’ biscuits, similar to hard tack.
Wine
Wine was the beverage of Rome. There were a wide variety, reds, whites, blush or rosé, and greys—a blend of red and white wines. Sweeter wines and aged wines were the most prized. Romans generally watered their wine to avoid become drunk—unless that was the purpose. Roman culture valued moderation in all things. Wines were also flavored with honey, defrutum, spices, and herbs. There are recipes for wine flavored with wormwood and with rose petals in Apicius.
The recipes collected in the book Apicius
This is the most complete set of recipes that exist currently. There are other recipes, usually found in small batches, in the writings of Epicureans or simply those interested in food. Cicero has some homey recipes in his writings, and numerous recipes for garum are found in the literature of the period. These recipes should not be taken necessarily as something to redact into usable recipes without having a great deal of experience and research background. They were not written as recipes are today for anyone to pick up and use. They were written as reminders and suggestions for experienced cooks. Often no cooking directions are given, and the ingredients lists suggest that the cook pick from some of these ingredients, or that all of these ingredients are good with this dish, not necessarily that all be used at the same time. There are several available cookbooks which have modern style recipes intended to emulate those of the Roman period. Some of these are more successful than others. My main complaint about most of them is that the food is under seasoned. The Romans clearly liked food with bold flavors, so don’t be afraid to punch up the flavors if you use some of these modern interpretations.
Sources
Apicius, Christopher Grocock and Sally Grainger (2006) ISBN 1-903018-13-7
This is by far the best translation, and it contains a wealth of other information. Highly recommended for the serious scholar interested in Roman cuisine.
The Life of Luxury, Archestratus, John Wilkins and Shaun Hill, trans. (1994) ISBN 0907325-53X
A translation of a Greek source on food, luxury, and lifestyle.
Greece and Rome; Builders of Our World, a National Geographic Society book, (1968)
Used solely for discussion of philosophers, philosophy and general history.
Roman Life, Mary Johnston (1957)
Used for the descriptions of dining customs.
Food in Antiquity, Dan Brothwell and Patricia Brothwell (1998 ed.) ISBN 0-8018-5740-6
This is a scholarly dissertation on the development of foodstuffs in the pre-historic and ancient worlds.
Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome, Patrick Faas (2003) ISBN 0-312-23958-0
This book is about food and dining, very accessible to all readers. It also has some quite good redactions of recipes from Apicius with commentary.
The Classical Cookbook, Andrew Dalby and Sally Grainger (1996) ISBN 0-89236-394-0
Modern recipes developed from period sources. One of the better recipe books.
Roman Cookery, Mark Grant (1999) ISBN 1-897959-39-7
Another modern recipe book. Not my personal favorite. I think he gets some things very wrong.
Recipes
Olive paste Serve about 10
This dish would have been served in some form at almost every dinner. This recipe is adapted from The Classical Cookbook.
1 1/2 pounds pitted olives (use whatever variety you like, or mix some—but no pimiento please)
3/4 cup red wine vinegar
3/4 cup extra virgin olive oil
½ teaspoon salt, or to taste (check after mixing all ingredients)
1 tablespoons fresh fennel leaf (or lovage if that is available to you)
2 tablespoons fresh chopped cilantro (or hyssop)
2 1/2 tablespoons fresh chopped mint
Blend all ingredients together until a smooth paste is formed. Store in the refrigerator in an airtight container until ready to use. Serve as a dip or spread for bread .
Rosemounde’s “Cheater’s” Oxygarum Serves about 10 modern diners, or 2 Romans
1 tube anchovy paste
1 Tablespoon finely chopped fresh flat-leaf parsley
1 Tablespoon finely minced lovage (or substitute celery leaves)
¼ cup white wine vinegar (or more if needed)
Mix the anchovy paste and the minced herbs. Add the vinegar a little at a time until desired consistency is achieved. To make a passable liquamen, add the same quantity of herbs to 1 cup of Thai fish sauce (no vinegar in this one) and blend in a blender. Store both in airtight containers in refrigerator.
Shrimp with Sauce Serves about 10
2 pounds fresh shrimp or prawns, sand veins removed but shells left on
Sauce
1 teaspoon peppercorns, ground fine
2 teaspoons celery seed, ground fine
4 Tablespoons fresh lovage, minced fine (or substitute celery leaves)
1 scant cup white wine vinegar
2 teaspoons Thai fish sauce
2 Tablespoons pine nuts, toasted and ground fine
Boil shrimp until done. Drain and place in zip lock bags and chill. When you are ready to serve, drain the shrimp and place in serving bowl. Pound in a mortar the lovage and pine nuts with the ground pepper and celery seed to form a paste. Stir in the fish sauce to make a smooth paste. Add vinegar to desired consistency. It should be fairly thin. The sauce may be made in advance and kept chilled in an airtight container. Pour sauce over the cold shrimp and toss.
Roman Stuffed Dates Serves about 10-12
1 box pitted dried dates
1/4 pound blanched whole almonds, more or less
1 cup raw honey (unless honey is marked “raw” it will not thicken)
pink dessert salt
Stuff the dates with the almonds. Heat the honey in a skillet until it thickens. Add the dates to coat them, then transfer to a serving dish. Sprinkle with the salt.
Mushrooms in Wine Sauce Serves about 10
2 pounds whole porcini mushrooms, washed and hard parts trimmed off
3 Tablespoons olive oil
Sauce
1 teaspoon fresh thyme, minced fine
1 teaspoon fresh lovage, minced fine
1/2 cup white wine
1/4 teaspoon salt
1/4 teaspoon pepper
2 Tablespoons olive oil
1 Tablespoon honey
Cook the mushrooms in olive oil over medium-high heat in a cast iron skillet until cooked and lightly browned. Remove them to a serving bowl. Alternatively, they may be tossed in oil and cooked directly on a grill. Mix the sauce ingredients in a small bowl, whisking until honey is completely dissolved and ingredients emulsify. Pour over the mushrooms.
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia (copyright Micaela Burnham 2011)
Origins
Roman cookery, like so many other things, came from the Greek tradition, and can be traced to the 4th century B.C.E. in Sicily, a Greek holding, which was a center of culinary arts at the time. Cooks there were doing proper carving of meat and fish. They used sauces and garnishes with their dishes, and garum, the ubiquitous fish sauce of the Roman world, was in evidence. Aquaculture was the main protein of the Greeks—not a surprise when much of the Greek world was made up of islands, but they also enjoyed pork.
Classic Roman cuisine grew from these Greek roots after Rome conquered Greece, enslaving much of its population, usurping their religion, and incorporating much of Greek culture into their own. But like all things “copied” from the Greeks, Romans put their own stamp on it, expanded, and improved it. Fish and pork were the staple proteins of Roman cuisine, but all types of meats, both domestic and wild, were available to wealthy Romans. In the first century of the Common Era, a tradition of fine dining developed among the wealthy citizens of Rome. All men of merit wanted to serve good food in style, and the wealthy merchant class emulated this. The Epicurean philosophy taught that the basis of human existence is found in pleasure, but that pleasure could only be achieved in temperate living. This later developed into a trend where Epicureanism meant following a life of luxury. Into this environment the first “foodies” appeared.
The best known of these was Marcus Gavius Apicius who lived during the reign of the Emperor Tiberius Caesar. He was the archetypical gourmand; so much so that his name “Apicius” came to mean “gourmet” in the centuries after his death. Not all the recipes collected in the well known cookbook bearing his name were actually his recipes, they were what was considered gourmet style recipes of the time. This book is the most complete source of urban and cosmopolitan recipes of the late Empire.
Cooking techniques, equipment, and kitchens
The majority of kitchens in the Roman Empire were semi-open, usually open to a courtyard on one side. This allowed smoke to escape as well as easy access to any cooking that might be going on outdoors. In the kitchen itself, the main cooking and preparation surface was a large masonry platform, similar to a modern counter top, against the walls. In a corner of this would be an oven built upon it, and under it was storage for wood and charcoal, both of which were used for cooking by the Romans. Most of the cooking would be done on braziers set upon the platform with the cooking fire directly on the masonry surface. Larger braziers or portable hearths would be placed on the floor or in the kitchen courtyard. Many types of portable hearths existed, both ceramic and metal have been found. Charcoal was used for grilling meats and for things that needed low steady heat. Grills or “gridirons” were used for grilling. Baking was done in the ovens or in a testura, a ceramic cover that coals could be piled on top of and around—functioning much like a modern Dutch oven. A larger version called a clibanus was used for roasting meats. The patina, a cooking dish with a rounded bottom and domed top, could be buried in coals, set on a trivet above the coals, or set directly into coals depending on the type of heat needed to properly cook the dish. Mortars and pestles were found in numerous sizes, materials, and weights. They were the food processors and blenders of the Roman kitchen. Many dishes were served as pastes or purees in Roman cuisine. Most experienced modern home cooks, could walk into a Roman kitchen and cook in it.
Dining
Formal dining, such as a dinner party, was done reclining on couches that were arranged on three sides of the dining table. Each couch was wide enough to accommodate three diners, and certain positions were reserved for those of highest rank. In the early Empire, any women present would sit on stools on the fourth side of the table, but this gave way to all diners, male and female, reclining during the meal. Family meals were rarely eaten in the formal dining room, and everyone sat on stools at the table. Cutlery consisted of spoons, and very occasionally a small spear like a fork with a single tine. Most food was eaten with the fingers. As a result, foods were served already cut up or were prepared in bite sized morsels. Napkins were provided.
Ingredients
There are certain ingredients, common to Roman cuisine, that are little used today, that deserve special note and explanations.
Asafoetida: called Parthian laser by the Romans, this spice is still used in Indian cooking today, and it is widely available in Indian stores. This is the closest we have to the Roman laser or sylphium, which was so prized by the Romans that it became extinct. It is a very pungent spice that smells and tastes a bit like garlic—but garlic on steroids. It should only be used in cooked foods, as heat tames the flavor. Never use it raw.
Defrutum/sapa: a flavored syrup made by boiling down grape juice and adding spices.
Garum/liquamen/muria: a salty fish sauce made by fermenting fish parts with salt and herbs. The exact ingredients differ greatly over time and from place to place. It was used liberally as both an ingredient and a sauce. Thai fish sauce is an acceptable substitute. I also make a thicker garum by mixing fresh minced herbs into anchovy paste. If thinned with water it is hydrogarum, thinned with wine, oenogarum, and thinned with vinegar, oxygarum. I like to use oxygarum, as the wine vinegar I thin it with gives the garum a nice balance of flavors. A friend of mine, Mistress Maysun (Missy Pankake) once fermented a batch of garum using a beer carboy. The results were quite tasty. We served it at a feast, and the entire batch was used up by the diners.
Mulsam: a mixture of wine, honey, water, and spices served as a drink.
Passum: raisin wine. This is still available at specialty stores, but it is very expensive. As an alternative consider soaking macerated golden raisins in white wine for several weeks, then strain it out. This was a common ingredient in Roman cuisine.
Patina: as stated earlier, this was a type of cooking dish, but the word also refers to dishes that are cooked and set with eggs. They were most likely cooked in the pan of the same name.
Breads
Bread was a staple food throughout the Roman world. Their armies marched on a diet of bread and pulses—a legume porridge. Although there are no exact extant recipes for Roman breads, there are descriptions. They had a wide variety. In general, the whiter the bread was, the wealthier the purchaser of it. The poor ate whole grain bread with lots of bran, probably dense and not risen very high. The rich had a lot more choices. They had soft spongy breads, flat breads, pastry, and crackers as well as fine soft well risen plain bread. Breads might have other ingredients in them such as olive oil, olives, or cheese. Placenta was a type of pastry. Pastry doughs were made with lard or olive oil instead of butter. Panis adipatus was a type of pizza crust. Panis militaris were soldiers’ biscuits, similar to hard tack.
Wine
Wine was the beverage of Rome. There were a wide variety, reds, whites, blush or rosé, and greys—a blend of red and white wines. Sweeter wines and aged wines were the most prized. Romans generally watered their wine to avoid become drunk—unless that was the purpose. Roman culture valued moderation in all things. Wines were also flavored with honey, defrutum, spices, and herbs. There are recipes for wine flavored with wormwood and with rose petals in Apicius.
The recipes collected in the book Apicius
This is the most complete set of recipes that exist currently. There are other recipes, usually found in small batches, in the writings of Epicureans or simply those interested in food. Cicero has some homey recipes in his writings, and numerous recipes for garum are found in the literature of the period. These recipes should not be taken necessarily as something to redact into usable recipes without having a great deal of experience and research background. They were not written as recipes are today for anyone to pick up and use. They were written as reminders and suggestions for experienced cooks. Often no cooking directions are given, and the ingredients lists suggest that the cook pick from some of these ingredients, or that all of these ingredients are good with this dish, not necessarily that all be used at the same time. There are several available cookbooks which have modern style recipes intended to emulate those of the Roman period. Some of these are more successful than others. My main complaint about most of them is that the food is under seasoned. The Romans clearly liked food with bold flavors, so don’t be afraid to punch up the flavors if you use some of these modern interpretations.
Sources
Apicius, Christopher Grocock and Sally Grainger (2006) ISBN 1-903018-13-7
This is by far the best translation, and it contains a wealth of other information. Highly recommended for the serious scholar interested in Roman cuisine.
The Life of Luxury, Archestratus, John Wilkins and Shaun Hill, trans. (1994) ISBN 0907325-53X
A translation of a Greek source on food, luxury, and lifestyle.
Greece and Rome; Builders of Our World, a National Geographic Society book, (1968)
Used solely for discussion of philosophers, philosophy and general history.
Roman Life, Mary Johnston (1957)
Used for the descriptions of dining customs.
Food in Antiquity, Dan Brothwell and Patricia Brothwell (1998 ed.) ISBN 0-8018-5740-6
This is a scholarly dissertation on the development of foodstuffs in the pre-historic and ancient worlds.
Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome, Patrick Faas (2003) ISBN 0-312-23958-0
This book is about food and dining, very accessible to all readers. It also has some quite good redactions of recipes from Apicius with commentary.
The Classical Cookbook, Andrew Dalby and Sally Grainger (1996) ISBN 0-89236-394-0
Modern recipes developed from period sources. One of the better recipe books.
Roman Cookery, Mark Grant (1999) ISBN 1-897959-39-7
Another modern recipe book. Not my personal favorite. I think he gets some things very wrong.
Recipes
Olive paste Serve about 10
This dish would have been served in some form at almost every dinner. This recipe is adapted from The Classical Cookbook.
1 1/2 pounds pitted olives (use whatever variety you like, or mix some—but no pimiento please)
3/4 cup red wine vinegar
3/4 cup extra virgin olive oil
½ teaspoon salt, or to taste (check after mixing all ingredients)
1 tablespoons fresh fennel leaf (or lovage if that is available to you)
2 tablespoons fresh chopped cilantro (or hyssop)
2 1/2 tablespoons fresh chopped mint
Blend all ingredients together until a smooth paste is formed. Store in the refrigerator in an airtight container until ready to use. Serve as a dip or spread for bread .
Rosemounde’s “Cheater’s” Oxygarum Serves about 10 modern diners, or 2 Romans
1 tube anchovy paste
1 Tablespoon finely chopped fresh flat-leaf parsley
1 Tablespoon finely minced lovage (or substitute celery leaves)
¼ cup white wine vinegar (or more if needed)
Mix the anchovy paste and the minced herbs. Add the vinegar a little at a time until desired consistency is achieved. To make a passable liquamen, add the same quantity of herbs to 1 cup of Thai fish sauce (no vinegar in this one) and blend in a blender. Store both in airtight containers in refrigerator.
Shrimp with Sauce Serves about 10
2 pounds fresh shrimp or prawns, sand veins removed but shells left on
Sauce
1 teaspoon peppercorns, ground fine
2 teaspoons celery seed, ground fine
4 Tablespoons fresh lovage, minced fine (or substitute celery leaves)
1 scant cup white wine vinegar
2 teaspoons Thai fish sauce
2 Tablespoons pine nuts, toasted and ground fine
Boil shrimp until done. Drain and place in zip lock bags and chill. When you are ready to serve, drain the shrimp and place in serving bowl. Pound in a mortar the lovage and pine nuts with the ground pepper and celery seed to form a paste. Stir in the fish sauce to make a smooth paste. Add vinegar to desired consistency. It should be fairly thin. The sauce may be made in advance and kept chilled in an airtight container. Pour sauce over the cold shrimp and toss.
Roman Stuffed Dates Serves about 10-12
1 box pitted dried dates
1/4 pound blanched whole almonds, more or less
1 cup raw honey (unless honey is marked “raw” it will not thicken)
pink dessert salt
Stuff the dates with the almonds. Heat the honey in a skillet until it thickens. Add the dates to coat them, then transfer to a serving dish. Sprinkle with the salt.
Mushrooms in Wine Sauce Serves about 10
2 pounds whole porcini mushrooms, washed and hard parts trimmed off
3 Tablespoons olive oil
Sauce
1 teaspoon fresh thyme, minced fine
1 teaspoon fresh lovage, minced fine
1/2 cup white wine
1/4 teaspoon salt
1/4 teaspoon pepper
2 Tablespoons olive oil
1 Tablespoon honey
Cook the mushrooms in olive oil over medium-high heat in a cast iron skillet until cooked and lightly browned. Remove them to a serving bowl. Alternatively, they may be tossed in oil and cooked directly on a grill. Mix the sauce ingredients in a small bowl, whisking until honey is completely dissolved and ingredients emulsify. Pour over the mushrooms.
