Breads in SCA Periods
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia (copyright Micaela Burnham 2012)
For the purposes of this class, we are going to talk about yeast-risen breads. In some cookbooks, anything with flour might be called bread; pastry, shortbread, fritters, etc. Quick breads as we know them today did not exist in period because there was no baking soda, baking powder, or baking ammonia.
There are more than 100 culinary manuscripts from the 14th and 15th centuries in Europe. These are usually organized by type of food or ingredient. None of these has a category for yeast breads. Where there is a category of “breads,” it is for dishes made with bread, pastry, fried doughs or batters. Despite this, bread was a ubiquitous food, eaten by peasant and lord alike. Every depiction of eating and feasting in SCA period includes bread. In wealthy households they had special valets to cut the trencher bread and place the slices on plates. Bread baking in England was highly regulated by the Assize of Bread, which regulated price, weight, and quality. This body was first formed in 1266, and continued through SCA periods and beyond. Similar bodies existed elsewhere, showing how important bread was in the diet of medieval people.
So, what do we know about breads in this period from primary sources? We know that the rich ate white bread and the peasants ate bread that was “coarse and brown.” We know how grain was planted, grown, harvested, stored, threshed, winnowed, and baked. We know what grains were grown where and when. We know what ovens looked like and how they worked. We know almost everything about bread except how the ingredients were put together. Virtually all recipes in SCA periods for bread in Europe are from the writings of Imperial Rome or those of the 16th century, leaving us to speculate about the 1000 years between.
Why is there such a lack of recipes? The most popular theory is twofold: first, bread making was so commonplace that there was no need to write it down, and secondly, much baking was done by professional bakers, who were proprietary about any recipes that deviated from ordinary bread. Professional bakers, whether in their own business or working in large households, may also have been less likely to be literate than the professional chefs, where exchanging recipes among themselves was very common. Similar to this, is the lack of any recipes for pastry until the 16th century. Often in extant cookbooks, the recipes do not mention adding salt, unless it was to note that one should not add too much of it to a particular dish. Fortunately some types of bread are mentioned, and in some 16th century cookbooks we have recipes or partial recipes for a variety of them. Also, when comparing the Roman recipes for bread to those of the Renaissance, we find that the recipes have more in common than you might imagine. This leads up to an important fact about bread; there are only so many ways to make it.
Why are there limitations in bread recipes? Bread, like pastry, requires chemistry to work. In its simplest form, bread requires flour, salt, yeast, and liquid. Although other ingredients can be added, the ratio of flour to liquid has a narrow range, as does the acidity of the dough. As a result, most period breads were very simple, and it is when they varied from simple, that a recipe was most likely to be written down.
How does bread work? When wheat flour and water combine, the gluten in the flour forms a rubbery dough that traps the carbon dioxide bubbles created by the yeast. One of the reasons that the hull, or bran, of the wheat is usually removed is that it is susceptible to oxidation, which produces a rancid smell and taste, as well as reducing the elastic quality of the flour. White flour is lighter and more elastic so it rises better. Ageing flour, which is a natural way of bleaching it, also improves rising ability because it improves the bonding of gluten. As a result, when you use grains that do not contain as much gluten, or you use whole wheat flour with some bran and germ in it, you get heavier loaves that take longer, and possibly more yeast, to rise.
Were period ingredients different? Period wheat flours were generally made from “softer” wheats than they are today. This makes for an easier rise and a softer interior texture, called the “crumb.” Hard wheats keep better and longer, and many modern wheats did not even exist in period. To approximate period flours, you must add some pastry or cake flour, which is made from soft wheat. There might also be small amounts of other grains if your flour came from a mill, because the millers did not clean their grindstones. Yeasts were also different than today. Yeast in period was from three sources. One was capturing wild yeasts. This was how sough dough started. You capture some wild yeast in your dough, then keep it alive by “feeding” it regularly. This keeps yeast present in the starter you use to begin each batch of bread. The other two sources are from brewing. The most common form of yeast in baking came from “barm,” the liquid produced by early fermentation. Some of this liquid was skimmed off and added to the flour. The last form of yeast was from the sediment left at the bottom of the barrel. This was the easiest form to dry and preserve, but was much weaker than the barm, as it contained a large proportion of dead yeast.
How was flour made in period? Archeological evidence shows that most medieval methods of producing flour started in the 7th-9th centuries in Europe. Kilns were used to harden the grains (and also for malting grain for brewing), then the grain was threshed--removed from the stalk, and winnowed—sieved to remove the bran. Then the grain was milled, or ground. In private homes this was done with a quern; a large stone turned against another stone with a hollow for catching the meal, or flour. Grain was also ground at large mills operated by either water or oxen power.
How was bread baked in period? Two general types of baking existed in period: direct heat, and indirect heat. With direct heat, the bread dough was placed on a pan directly into the hearth, or on a pan that was covered with an earthenware domed lid with hot coals then piled around it. Indirect heat ovens were by far the most common. A fire is made inside a brick and clay oven to heat it. Then the ashes are raked out and bread dough placed within, and a sturdy door placed in the opening. Professional bakers and those on large estates and homes all used this type of oven, and they were even to be found in more modest homes on a smaller scale. Sometime the bread dough was made at home and then sent out to be baked by professionals.
What were the early period recipes like? Roman writers of the Imperial period did include some recipes for bread. Recipes for “soft bread” and “mushroom bread” are among those given by the 2nd century writer Athanaeus. Mushroom bread is called that for its shape, not because it contains mushrooms. The writings of Apicius mention only “Picentine Bread,” a white bread made by soaking flour in fresh grape juice—a method for extracting wild yeast from the juice as well as flavoring the bread.
What do we know of medieval bread recipes? The only recipe that purports to come from a 14th century source, although this source is now unknown, is a recipe for Manchet. It states that the flour is “ground and bolted through the finest cloth,” then put into a kneading tub. It states that a hollow is made in the flour into which you put ale barm; “three pints to a bushel of meal (flour)” and salt. Warm water is then added and the dough is kneaded “through a brake”—a type of dough hook commonly used in bread kneading. The dough is then risen for an hour then formed into “manchets”—small loaves that are rounded on top and flat on the bottom. The loaves are then scored “about the waist” and pricked on top, then baked at a gentle heat. The Form of Cury includes a bread recipe as a part of a recipe for Rastons, a dish of fried bread. That recipe says to mix good flour, egg white, a little egg yolk and mix together. Add warm barm and work them together, then add in some sugar and let it rise, then bake. That book also advises bakers to use a finely sifted flour and salted water. Then you mix in the leaven (yeast) and rise it in a damp place. We are told that too much leaven will make it sour, but not enough will make it too heavy. Platina (recipe c. 1431) tells us that bread is best made of finely ground flour sieved to remove the bran. He notes that buns may be flavored with fennel seeds and have fat added from lard, butter, or oil. They may also be formed around fresh cheese or even small birds. There are references to barley bread being most commonly used in monasteries, especially those that did their own brewing. The barley is mixed with wheat to make the flour. Barley bread dates back to Biblical times, and it became more common in the 15th century due to an increase in barley production, probably because of its higher yield than wheats. Also mentioned is “Household Bread,” usually given to servants. This was a mixed grain bread that could include wheat, rye, barley, and legumes. A bread made mostly of legumes was fed to horses.
What are the 16th century bread recipes like? Most bread recipes and references are from Elizabethan English sources. The highest quality bread was manchet, made entirely of white flour. One recipe for it is found in The English Hus-wife by Gervase Markham. “French Bread” was similar to manchet but with the addition of egg whites and milk. “Fine Cheate Bread” was a sourdough of mostly white flour, considered second to manchet in quality. “Temmes Rye Bread” was made with rye flour and wheat flour containing some germ and bran. “Meslin Rye Bread” was a half rye half wheat sourdough bread. “Cheate Bread” was whole wheat bread, also sometimes called “coarse cheat.” “Brown Bread” was a sourdough whole grain bread considerd inferior and suitable only for servants, slaves, and peasants. “Jannocks,” an oat bread, was also considered inferior. Sourdough barley bread was usually baked in very large flat loaves for servants. At the other end of quality was dessert spiced bread. It was a manchet containing butter, sugar, spices, and dried currants.
What do we know about Middle-Eastern Breads? As early as the 9th century, there were bread recipes in Arab cookbooks, but like their European counterparts, these recipes tended to be for special breads, as opposed to the ones people ate every day. “Khushknanaj” was a dessert bread stuffed with almond paste, spices, and rosewater. A 14th century cookbook described baking techniques as well as complex recipes for stuffed breads and breads with elaborate coatings or toppings of seeds, spices, nuts, and cheese. Both wheat and barley bread and mentioned. Most bread seemed to have included eggs, yogurt, and/or butter, making them brioche type breads. Late 15th century Arab food writers describe “nān,” “pūrī,” and “balloon bread;” a bread that apparently puffs up when fried similar to pita bread.
What are some of the ways that bread was used in cooking? Bread crumbs, bread slices, and loaves are all common in both European and Middle-Eastern recipes throughout SCA periods. Toasted bread crumbs were the main thickening agent in sauces, There are numerous recipes for fried breads similar to modern French toast. Croutons, toasted bread slices or chunks, were used, either stirred into soups or underneath a dish to soak up the juices. Recipes similar to modern bread puddings exist. Sometimes leavened batter was used to make fritters and fried dough confections. Leavened pancakes like bliny were not uncommon. “Bread and Rastons” in the Form of Cury is a recipe using the entire loaf. The top of a round loaf is cut off in the shape of a crown. Then the inside is removed and the crumb mixed with melted butter and maybe sugar and spices as well, then put back into the shell, recovered with the cut out piece and baked briefly to heat it through.
As we have seen, bread held and important place in medieval society though it may have been taken for granted by the food writers of the period. Hopefully this overview can get you on the road to baking in period style.
Pictures
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia (copyright Micaela Burnham 2012)
For the purposes of this class, we are going to talk about yeast-risen breads. In some cookbooks, anything with flour might be called bread; pastry, shortbread, fritters, etc. Quick breads as we know them today did not exist in period because there was no baking soda, baking powder, or baking ammonia.
There are more than 100 culinary manuscripts from the 14th and 15th centuries in Europe. These are usually organized by type of food or ingredient. None of these has a category for yeast breads. Where there is a category of “breads,” it is for dishes made with bread, pastry, fried doughs or batters. Despite this, bread was a ubiquitous food, eaten by peasant and lord alike. Every depiction of eating and feasting in SCA period includes bread. In wealthy households they had special valets to cut the trencher bread and place the slices on plates. Bread baking in England was highly regulated by the Assize of Bread, which regulated price, weight, and quality. This body was first formed in 1266, and continued through SCA periods and beyond. Similar bodies existed elsewhere, showing how important bread was in the diet of medieval people.
So, what do we know about breads in this period from primary sources? We know that the rich ate white bread and the peasants ate bread that was “coarse and brown.” We know how grain was planted, grown, harvested, stored, threshed, winnowed, and baked. We know what grains were grown where and when. We know what ovens looked like and how they worked. We know almost everything about bread except how the ingredients were put together. Virtually all recipes in SCA periods for bread in Europe are from the writings of Imperial Rome or those of the 16th century, leaving us to speculate about the 1000 years between.
Why is there such a lack of recipes? The most popular theory is twofold: first, bread making was so commonplace that there was no need to write it down, and secondly, much baking was done by professional bakers, who were proprietary about any recipes that deviated from ordinary bread. Professional bakers, whether in their own business or working in large households, may also have been less likely to be literate than the professional chefs, where exchanging recipes among themselves was very common. Similar to this, is the lack of any recipes for pastry until the 16th century. Often in extant cookbooks, the recipes do not mention adding salt, unless it was to note that one should not add too much of it to a particular dish. Fortunately some types of bread are mentioned, and in some 16th century cookbooks we have recipes or partial recipes for a variety of them. Also, when comparing the Roman recipes for bread to those of the Renaissance, we find that the recipes have more in common than you might imagine. This leads up to an important fact about bread; there are only so many ways to make it.
Why are there limitations in bread recipes? Bread, like pastry, requires chemistry to work. In its simplest form, bread requires flour, salt, yeast, and liquid. Although other ingredients can be added, the ratio of flour to liquid has a narrow range, as does the acidity of the dough. As a result, most period breads were very simple, and it is when they varied from simple, that a recipe was most likely to be written down.
How does bread work? When wheat flour and water combine, the gluten in the flour forms a rubbery dough that traps the carbon dioxide bubbles created by the yeast. One of the reasons that the hull, or bran, of the wheat is usually removed is that it is susceptible to oxidation, which produces a rancid smell and taste, as well as reducing the elastic quality of the flour. White flour is lighter and more elastic so it rises better. Ageing flour, which is a natural way of bleaching it, also improves rising ability because it improves the bonding of gluten. As a result, when you use grains that do not contain as much gluten, or you use whole wheat flour with some bran and germ in it, you get heavier loaves that take longer, and possibly more yeast, to rise.
Were period ingredients different? Period wheat flours were generally made from “softer” wheats than they are today. This makes for an easier rise and a softer interior texture, called the “crumb.” Hard wheats keep better and longer, and many modern wheats did not even exist in period. To approximate period flours, you must add some pastry or cake flour, which is made from soft wheat. There might also be small amounts of other grains if your flour came from a mill, because the millers did not clean their grindstones. Yeasts were also different than today. Yeast in period was from three sources. One was capturing wild yeasts. This was how sough dough started. You capture some wild yeast in your dough, then keep it alive by “feeding” it regularly. This keeps yeast present in the starter you use to begin each batch of bread. The other two sources are from brewing. The most common form of yeast in baking came from “barm,” the liquid produced by early fermentation. Some of this liquid was skimmed off and added to the flour. The last form of yeast was from the sediment left at the bottom of the barrel. This was the easiest form to dry and preserve, but was much weaker than the barm, as it contained a large proportion of dead yeast.
How was flour made in period? Archeological evidence shows that most medieval methods of producing flour started in the 7th-9th centuries in Europe. Kilns were used to harden the grains (and also for malting grain for brewing), then the grain was threshed--removed from the stalk, and winnowed—sieved to remove the bran. Then the grain was milled, or ground. In private homes this was done with a quern; a large stone turned against another stone with a hollow for catching the meal, or flour. Grain was also ground at large mills operated by either water or oxen power.
How was bread baked in period? Two general types of baking existed in period: direct heat, and indirect heat. With direct heat, the bread dough was placed on a pan directly into the hearth, or on a pan that was covered with an earthenware domed lid with hot coals then piled around it. Indirect heat ovens were by far the most common. A fire is made inside a brick and clay oven to heat it. Then the ashes are raked out and bread dough placed within, and a sturdy door placed in the opening. Professional bakers and those on large estates and homes all used this type of oven, and they were even to be found in more modest homes on a smaller scale. Sometime the bread dough was made at home and then sent out to be baked by professionals.
What were the early period recipes like? Roman writers of the Imperial period did include some recipes for bread. Recipes for “soft bread” and “mushroom bread” are among those given by the 2nd century writer Athanaeus. Mushroom bread is called that for its shape, not because it contains mushrooms. The writings of Apicius mention only “Picentine Bread,” a white bread made by soaking flour in fresh grape juice—a method for extracting wild yeast from the juice as well as flavoring the bread.
What do we know of medieval bread recipes? The only recipe that purports to come from a 14th century source, although this source is now unknown, is a recipe for Manchet. It states that the flour is “ground and bolted through the finest cloth,” then put into a kneading tub. It states that a hollow is made in the flour into which you put ale barm; “three pints to a bushel of meal (flour)” and salt. Warm water is then added and the dough is kneaded “through a brake”—a type of dough hook commonly used in bread kneading. The dough is then risen for an hour then formed into “manchets”—small loaves that are rounded on top and flat on the bottom. The loaves are then scored “about the waist” and pricked on top, then baked at a gentle heat. The Form of Cury includes a bread recipe as a part of a recipe for Rastons, a dish of fried bread. That recipe says to mix good flour, egg white, a little egg yolk and mix together. Add warm barm and work them together, then add in some sugar and let it rise, then bake. That book also advises bakers to use a finely sifted flour and salted water. Then you mix in the leaven (yeast) and rise it in a damp place. We are told that too much leaven will make it sour, but not enough will make it too heavy. Platina (recipe c. 1431) tells us that bread is best made of finely ground flour sieved to remove the bran. He notes that buns may be flavored with fennel seeds and have fat added from lard, butter, or oil. They may also be formed around fresh cheese or even small birds. There are references to barley bread being most commonly used in monasteries, especially those that did their own brewing. The barley is mixed with wheat to make the flour. Barley bread dates back to Biblical times, and it became more common in the 15th century due to an increase in barley production, probably because of its higher yield than wheats. Also mentioned is “Household Bread,” usually given to servants. This was a mixed grain bread that could include wheat, rye, barley, and legumes. A bread made mostly of legumes was fed to horses.
What are the 16th century bread recipes like? Most bread recipes and references are from Elizabethan English sources. The highest quality bread was manchet, made entirely of white flour. One recipe for it is found in The English Hus-wife by Gervase Markham. “French Bread” was similar to manchet but with the addition of egg whites and milk. “Fine Cheate Bread” was a sourdough of mostly white flour, considered second to manchet in quality. “Temmes Rye Bread” was made with rye flour and wheat flour containing some germ and bran. “Meslin Rye Bread” was a half rye half wheat sourdough bread. “Cheate Bread” was whole wheat bread, also sometimes called “coarse cheat.” “Brown Bread” was a sourdough whole grain bread considerd inferior and suitable only for servants, slaves, and peasants. “Jannocks,” an oat bread, was also considered inferior. Sourdough barley bread was usually baked in very large flat loaves for servants. At the other end of quality was dessert spiced bread. It was a manchet containing butter, sugar, spices, and dried currants.
What do we know about Middle-Eastern Breads? As early as the 9th century, there were bread recipes in Arab cookbooks, but like their European counterparts, these recipes tended to be for special breads, as opposed to the ones people ate every day. “Khushknanaj” was a dessert bread stuffed with almond paste, spices, and rosewater. A 14th century cookbook described baking techniques as well as complex recipes for stuffed breads and breads with elaborate coatings or toppings of seeds, spices, nuts, and cheese. Both wheat and barley bread and mentioned. Most bread seemed to have included eggs, yogurt, and/or butter, making them brioche type breads. Late 15th century Arab food writers describe “nān,” “pūrī,” and “balloon bread;” a bread that apparently puffs up when fried similar to pita bread.
What are some of the ways that bread was used in cooking? Bread crumbs, bread slices, and loaves are all common in both European and Middle-Eastern recipes throughout SCA periods. Toasted bread crumbs were the main thickening agent in sauces, There are numerous recipes for fried breads similar to modern French toast. Croutons, toasted bread slices or chunks, were used, either stirred into soups or underneath a dish to soak up the juices. Recipes similar to modern bread puddings exist. Sometimes leavened batter was used to make fritters and fried dough confections. Leavened pancakes like bliny were not uncommon. “Bread and Rastons” in the Form of Cury is a recipe using the entire loaf. The top of a round loaf is cut off in the shape of a crown. Then the inside is removed and the crumb mixed with melted butter and maybe sugar and spices as well, then put back into the shell, recovered with the cut out piece and baked briefly to heat it through.
As we have seen, bread held and important place in medieval society though it may have been taken for granted by the food writers of the period. Hopefully this overview can get you on the road to baking in period style.
Pictures
Bibliography
Apicius, Christopher Grocock and Sally Grainger, 2006, ISBN 1-903018-13-7
Roman Cookery, Mark Grant, 1999, ISBN 1-897959-39-7
War Fare, Bonnie Feinberg and Marion Walke, 2009, ISBN 978-0-578-06232-7
Fêtes Gourmandes, Jean-Louis Flandrin and Carole Lambert, 1998, ISBN 2-7433-0268-2
The Medieval Kitchen, Odile Redan, François Sabban, and Silvano Serventi, 1998, ISBN 0-226-70684-2
A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food, Ann Hagen, 1992, ISBN 0-9516209-8-3
The Domostroi, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, ed. and trans., 1994 (original text 16th cent.), ISBN 0-8014-9689-6
To the King’s Taste, Lorna J. Sass, 1975, ISBN 0-87099-133-7
An Early Northern Cookery Book, Rudolf Grewe and Constance B. Hieatt, eds. and trans., ISBN 0-86698-264-7
The Book of Good Food, Melitta Weiss Adamson, trans., 2000, ISBN 3-90-1094-12-1
The Medieval Cookbook, Maggie Black, 1992, ISBN 0-7141-0583-X
Food and Feast in Medieval England, P.W. Hammond, 1993, ISBN 0-7509-0992-7
Pleyn Delit, Constance B. Hieatt and Sharon Butler, 1976, ISBN 0-8020-2252-9
Take a Thousand Eggs or More, Cindy Renfrow, 1991, self-published (This book has recently come out in a rebound version that may have an ISBN. Check with Poison Pen Press on line.)
The Vivendier, Terrence Scully, 1997, ISBN 0-907325-81-5
The Original Mediterranean Cuisine, Barbara Santich, 1995, ISBN 0907325-59-9
Platina: On Right Pleasure and Good Health, Mary Ella Milham, trans., 1998 (original 15th cent.), ISBN 0-86698-208-6
The Frugal Gourmet Keeps the Feast, Jeff Smith, 1995, ISBN 0-688-11568-3
Dining with William Shakespeare, Madge Lorwin, 1976, ISBN 0-689-10731-5
All the King’s Cooks, Peter Brears, 1999, ISBN 0-285-6533-6
Medieval Arab Cookery, Maxime Rodinson, A.J. Arberry, and Charles Perry, 2001, ISBN 0907-325-91-2
The Sultan’s Book of Delights, Norah M. Titley, trans., 2005, ISBN 978-0-415-65046-5
In a Caliph’s Kitchen, David Waines, 1989, ISBN 1-869844-60-2
I am sorry for not including any recipes, but to do so would be to rob some of my favorite authors of their copyrights. My favorite recipes for breads are to be found in the below books.
War Fare, by Bonnie Feinberg and Marion Walke. Anyone wanting to do period style baking should buy this book, authored by some of the earliest SCA living history experts on period food. They blazed the trail for the rest of us. Best recipe for manchet I have found.
Dining with William Shakepeare by Madge Lorwin. Madge is the one who awakened my desire to cook food well. Although she has passed on, she has left an astonishing legacy in this book. I have never had a failure following her recipes, nor have I ever needed to alter one of them.
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia, CL, CP
Apicius, Christopher Grocock and Sally Grainger, 2006, ISBN 1-903018-13-7
Roman Cookery, Mark Grant, 1999, ISBN 1-897959-39-7
War Fare, Bonnie Feinberg and Marion Walke, 2009, ISBN 978-0-578-06232-7
Fêtes Gourmandes, Jean-Louis Flandrin and Carole Lambert, 1998, ISBN 2-7433-0268-2
The Medieval Kitchen, Odile Redan, François Sabban, and Silvano Serventi, 1998, ISBN 0-226-70684-2
A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food, Ann Hagen, 1992, ISBN 0-9516209-8-3
The Domostroi, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, ed. and trans., 1994 (original text 16th cent.), ISBN 0-8014-9689-6
To the King’s Taste, Lorna J. Sass, 1975, ISBN 0-87099-133-7
An Early Northern Cookery Book, Rudolf Grewe and Constance B. Hieatt, eds. and trans., ISBN 0-86698-264-7
The Book of Good Food, Melitta Weiss Adamson, trans., 2000, ISBN 3-90-1094-12-1
The Medieval Cookbook, Maggie Black, 1992, ISBN 0-7141-0583-X
Food and Feast in Medieval England, P.W. Hammond, 1993, ISBN 0-7509-0992-7
Pleyn Delit, Constance B. Hieatt and Sharon Butler, 1976, ISBN 0-8020-2252-9
Take a Thousand Eggs or More, Cindy Renfrow, 1991, self-published (This book has recently come out in a rebound version that may have an ISBN. Check with Poison Pen Press on line.)
The Vivendier, Terrence Scully, 1997, ISBN 0-907325-81-5
The Original Mediterranean Cuisine, Barbara Santich, 1995, ISBN 0907325-59-9
Platina: On Right Pleasure and Good Health, Mary Ella Milham, trans., 1998 (original 15th cent.), ISBN 0-86698-208-6
The Frugal Gourmet Keeps the Feast, Jeff Smith, 1995, ISBN 0-688-11568-3
Dining with William Shakespeare, Madge Lorwin, 1976, ISBN 0-689-10731-5
All the King’s Cooks, Peter Brears, 1999, ISBN 0-285-6533-6
Medieval Arab Cookery, Maxime Rodinson, A.J. Arberry, and Charles Perry, 2001, ISBN 0907-325-91-2
The Sultan’s Book of Delights, Norah M. Titley, trans., 2005, ISBN 978-0-415-65046-5
In a Caliph’s Kitchen, David Waines, 1989, ISBN 1-869844-60-2
I am sorry for not including any recipes, but to do so would be to rob some of my favorite authors of their copyrights. My favorite recipes for breads are to be found in the below books.
War Fare, by Bonnie Feinberg and Marion Walke. Anyone wanting to do period style baking should buy this book, authored by some of the earliest SCA living history experts on period food. They blazed the trail for the rest of us. Best recipe for manchet I have found.
Dining with William Shakepeare by Madge Lorwin. Madge is the one who awakened my desire to cook food well. Although she has passed on, she has left an astonishing legacy in this book. I have never had a failure following her recipes, nor have I ever needed to alter one of them.
Magistra Rosemounde of Mercia, CL, CP